
Book ^iV5M_ 



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LATIN GRAMMAR 



FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 



FOUNDED ON COjMPARATIVE GRAMMAR 



BY 
JOSEPH H. ALLEN 

AND 

JAMES B. GREENOUGH 



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BOSTON 

PUBLISHED BY GINN BROTHERS 
3 Beacon Street 

1872 



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Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by 

J. H. all?:n and j. b. greenough, 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 



CAMBRIDGE: 
PRESS OF JOHN AV'ILSON AND SON. 



/O) 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



PREFACE. 



Our aim has been to prepare, within moderate com- 
pass, a complete Latin grammar, to be used from the 
beginning of the study of Latin until the end of a 
college course. The whole has been composed from 
our own point of view, and is, in all essentials, a new 
and independent work. But we have used freely the 
standard authorities, as well those of the older scho- 
lastic as of the newer critical and scientific schools. 
In several points, particularly the topical arrangement 
of the Syntax, we have followed the outline sketched 
a few years ago by Professor Allen, of the University 
of Wisconsin. 

We have endeavored to adapt the scientific (philo- 
logical) method of inflection by stem and termination 
to the system used by the Romans themselves arid 
handed down by general custom to our time. While 
the five Declensions are retained, with the old distinc- 
tions on which they are founded, at the same time the 
true philological difference, that of stems, is fully 
exhibited as the real basis of noun-forms. In the same 
way the true distinctions of verb-stems are adapted 
to the existing four Conjugations. We have preferred 
this to the "crude-form" system, partly because of 
the practical difficulty that our lexicons do not give 



VI PREFACE. 

stems, but words ; chiefly, however, from the inherent 
difficulty of a crude-form system in a language so 
decayed as the Latin. 

In respect to the actual forms of the language, we 
have not thought it necessary to go back of Neue's 
" Formenlehre," upon which we have relied, and which 
teachers will find digested so far as seems to come 
within the limits of a work like the present. 

In the Syntax, our design has been to leave no 
principle untouched which a student needs during his 
school and college course. We have attempted to 
show, as far as possible, the reason and origin of con- 
structions, for which purpose notes have been inserted 
where it seemed desirable. Many things in the treat- 
ment of the Subjunctive, of the Protasis and Apodosis 
(in which we have followed Professor Goodwin's 
analysis), of Temporal particles, of the Infinitive and 
Participles, and much of the matter of the notes, 
appear for the first time in a school-book, and are the 
results of the authors' own investigations in Compar- 
ative Grammar. The Syntax is illustrated by upwards 
of a thousand examples cited from classical authorities, 
principally from Cicero ; besides nearly as many brief 
phrases in illustration of minor points, particularly 
the use of prepositions and cases. 

In Prosody and Versification we have taken a little 
wider range than usual, so as to enable the student to 
read metrically any poetry he will meet in his college 
course. 

In the typography and mechanical arrangement of 
the page, we have sought ^o give every aid that can 
be rendered in that way to the easy comprehension of 
the subject. The sub-sections in larger type (num- 



PREFACE. Vll 

bered 1, 2, 3, &c.) contain of themselves a complete 
outline, and we think will be found sufficient, with the 
accompanying paradigms or examples, for a course 
of elementary study. Details of form or structure, re- 
quiring to be committed to memory only as they occur 
in reading, are put in smaller type, marked a, 6, c^ &c. 
And the points of philology, or special criticism, which 
appear to throw valuable side-light upon the subject, 
interesting chiefly to teachers or special students, are 
contained in the form of Notes, not interfering at all 
with the treatment in the text. By paying attention 
to this subordination of topics, teachers will avoid the 
serious error of crowding upon the student, prema- 
turely, a mass of details, which might only perplex 
and obscure his real understanding of the subject. 

Cambridge, April, 1872. 



NOTE. 



For the convenience of those who may wish to follow out 
special lines of study in general or comparative grammar, or to 
consult original sources on the history and development of the 
Latin, a list of works including the best and most recent author- 
ities is here subjoined : — 

Bopp : Verqleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, etc [Indo-European lan- 
guages]! 4 vols. 3d Ed. Berhn, 1868-70. 

The original standard, work on Comparative Forms. Later researches have 
corrected some erroneous details. English translation (poor), London: 18G2. 
The best form is a French translation, with Notes and Introductions by Michel 
Breal. Paris: 1866. 

CoRSSEN : Aussprache, Vokalismus und Betonung der Lateimschen Sprache. 
2 vols. 2d Ed. Leipzig, 1868. 

The greatest work on Latin alone, treating the language in reference to its 
own individual development, particularly as to the sounds (Lautlehre). In the 
comparative portion, it needs the correction of other investigators. 

CuRTius, G. : Grundzuge der Griechischen Etymologie. 3d Ed. Leipsic : 
1869. 

Treats of Latin only by comparison; but is one of the most valuable 
works on the general subject. 

Erlduterungen zu meiner Griechischen Schid-grammatih. 2d Ed. 

Prag. 1870. English translation (" Elucidations ''), London: 1870. 

Notes giving in connection with the Greek Grammar the simplest view of 
the doctrine of forms. 

Delbruck: Das Conjunctiv und Optativ, im Sanskrit und Griechischen. 
Halle: 1871. 

Origin of the Moods treated scientifically; should be read in connection 
with a notice in N. A. Review, Oct. 1871, and '' Analysis of the Latin Subjunc- 
tive," by J. B. Greenough, Cambridge, 1870. 



Ablativ, Localis, Instrumental is im indischen, etc, Berlin, 1867. 

Origin of the various Ablative constructions. 

Ferrar : Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. Lon- 
don : 1869. Vol. I., including as far as Pronouns. 
A convenient hand-book in English. 

FiCK : Vergleichendes Worterbuch der Indo-Germanischen Sprachen. Got- 
tingen : 1870. 

A Dictionary of Roots and Words supposed to have existed in the Indo- 
European tongue, with the corresponding words and derivatives in the various 

a* 



X NOTE. 

languages. It can be used without a knowledge of German. No such book, 
however, is safe to use without careful study of the laws of consonant and 
vowel changes. 

Hoffmann: Die Construction der Lateinischen Zeitpartikeln. Vienna: 
1860 (Pamphlet). 

KuHN : See Zeitsclirift. 

LuBBERT : Die Syntax von Quom. Breslau : 1870. 

Neue : Formenlehre der Lateinischen Sprache. 2d Ed. Stuttgart, 1866. 

Storehouse of all Latin forms, 1200 pages, containing the result of late text- 
ual criticism. The standard work. 

pEiLE : Latin and Greek Etymology. 2d Ed. Macmillan : London and 
Cambridge, 1872. 

EoBY : A Grammar of the Latin Language, from Plautus to Suetonius. 
Macmillan : London and New York, 1871. Vol. I. 

A thorough treatment of Latin Etymology on the principles of comparative 
grammar. Some errors have been pointed out in the N. A. Review, Jan. 1872. 

Schleicher : Compendium der Vergleichenden Grammatik der Indo- 
Germanischen Sprachen. 2d Ed. Weimar, 1866. 

Schweizer-Sidler : Elementar- und Formenlehre der Lateinischen 
Sprache^ fur Schulen. Halle, 1869. 

The best summary of the results of comparative grammar as applied to 
Latin in short compass (137 pages). 

Williams : A Practical Grammar of the Sanskrit Language. 8d Ed. 
Oxford, 1864. 

A very convenient Sanskrit grammar, without some knowledge of which 
it is difficult to pursue the study of comparative grammar to advantage. 

Zeitschrift fur vergleichender Sprachforschunq. Edited by Dr. A. Kuhn. 
Vols. I. to XX. Berlin, 1851-1871, and still continued. 

The best essays on all disputed points of comparative Philology. Indispen- 
sable to correct theories of individual investigators. Each volume has an 
Index ; and there is also a general index to the first ten volumes. 



CONTENTS, 



PART L — ETYMOLOGY. 

Section Page 

1. Alphabet 1 

1. Classification; 2. Early Forms; 3. Changes; 4. Com- 
binations; 6. Syllables. 

2. Pronunciation 5 

3. Quantity 6 

4. Accent 7 

5. Inflection 8 

1. Definition; 2. Root and Stem; Inflected parts of 
speech; 4. Particles. 

6. Gender 9 

1. Natural and Grammatical ; 2. Rules ; 3. Common 
Gender; 4. Epicene. 

7. Case 11 

8. Declension 12 

1. Declensions; 2. Rules; 3. Case-Endings. 

Nouns. 

9. First Declension 14 

1. Gender; 2. Case Forms; 3. Greek Nouns. 

10. Second Declension 15 

1. Nominative; 2. Stems in ro-; 3. Gender; 4. Case 
Forms; 6,6. Nouns in er; 7. Greek Nouns. 

11. Third Declension 17 

I. Vowel Stems. — 1. Stems; 2. Nominative; 3. Case 
Forms ; 4. Greek Nouns. 

II. Liquid Stems 19 

m. Mute Stems. — 1. Labial ; 2. Lingual ; 3. Palatal ; 

4. Peculiar Forms ; 6. Greek Nouns 20 

IV. Rules of Gender. — 1. Nominative endings ; 2. Stems; 

3. Classified List 23 



Xll CONTENTS. 

Sect. Page. 

12. Fourth Declension 28 

13. Fifth Declension 29 

14. Irregular Nouns 30 

1. Defective ; 2. Variable. 

15. Proper Names 32 

Adjectives. 

16. Inflection 33 

1. Of the 1st and 2d Declension; 2. Of 3d Declension; 
3. Consonant Stems, Comparatives. 

17. Comparison 38 

1. Kegular; 2. Irregular; 3. Defective; 4. Adverbs; 
5. Signification. 

18. Numerals 41 

1. Cardinal and Ordinal; 2. Distributives; 3. Numeral 
Adverbs; 4. Multiplicatives. 

Pronouns. 

19. Personal and Reflexive 44 

20. Demonstrative 45 

21. Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite 47 

1. Case-Forms; 2. Compounds. 

22. Correlatives . . 49 

Verbs. 

23. Structure 50 

24. Moods 51 

25. Participles 51 

26. Gerund and Supine . 52 

27. Tenses 52 

1. Classification; 2. Meaning; 3. Perfect and Imper- 
fect; 4. Passive Tenses; 5. Stems. 

28. Verb Forms 54 

1. Personal Endings ; 2. Changes of Stem ; 3. Verb- 
Endings. 

29. Esse and its Compounds 57 

30. Conjugation 60 

1. First Conjugation ; 2. Second Conjugation ; 3. Third 
Conjugation ; 4. Fourth Conjugation ; 5. Principal 
Parts ; 6. Special Forms ; 7. Parallel Forms. 

31. First Conjugation 66 

32. Second Conjugation 68 

33. Third Conjugation 70 

1. Regular ; 2. Verbs in io ; 3. Irregular Conjugation , 72 



CONTENTS. ^111 

Page. 
Sect. ^ 

34. Fourth Conjugation 

35. Deponent Verbs 

1. Conjugation; 2. Semi-Deponents. 

36. Derivative Verbs 

37. Irregular Verbs 

38. Defective Verbs "^^ 

39. Impersonal Verbs 

40. Periphrastic Forms °^ 

Particles. 

41. Adverbs ^^ 

1. Derivation; 2. Classification; 3. Signification. 

42. Prepositions ^^ 

1. With Cases ; 2. Meaning and Use : Examples ; 3. In 
Compounds. 

43. Conjunctions ^^ 

1. Classification; 2. Classified List ; 3. Special Meaning. 

44. Derivation of Words ^^ 

1. Noun Forms ; 2. Derivation of Verbs ; 3. Compound 
Words. 

PAET IL — SYNTAX. 

45. Definitions 1^^ 

1. Sentence ; 2. Subject and Predicate ; 3. Modification ; 
4. Phrase; 5. Clause; 6. Connectives; 7. Agree- 
ment; 8. Government. 

1. Subject and Predicate. 

46. Of Nouns 1^^ 

1. Appositive; 2. Predicate- Nominative. 

47. Of Adjectives 1^^ 

1. Number ; 2. Gender ; 3. As Nouns ; 4. Use of Neu- 
ter ; 5. Possessives ; 6. As Adverbs ; 7. Compari- 
son ; 8. Superlatives of Place ; 9. Reciprocals. 

48. Of Relatives 1^^ 

1. Person of Verb; 2. Gender; 3. Antecedent; 4. As 
Connective ; 5. Adverbs. 

49. Verbs : Rules of Argument 112 

1. Plural with Collectives, &c. ; 2. Nominative Subject. 

2. Construction of Cases. 

50. Genitive .113 

1. Subjective, 114 ; 2. Partitive, 115 ; 3. Objective, 117 ; 
4. After Verbs, 119. 



XIV CONTENTS. 

Sect. Page. 

51. Dative 121 

1. With Transitives, 121; 2. With Intransitives, 122; 

3. Of Possession, 126 ; 4. Of Agency, 127 ; 5. Of 
Service, 128; 6. Of Nearness, 128; 7. Of Advan- 
tage, 129; (Ethical Dative, 130). 

52. Accusative 131 

1. General Use (Cognate Accusative, 131); 2. Two Ac- 
cusatives ; 3. Adverbial ; 4. Special Uses. 

53. Vocative 134 

54. Ablative 134 

1. Of Separation, 135 ; 2. Of Source, 136 ; 3. Of Cause, 
137; 4. Of Agent, 138; 6. Of Comparison, 138; 
6. Of Means, 139; 7. Of Quahty, 141 ; 8. Of Price, 
141; 9. Of Specification, 142; 10. Locative, Abla- 
tive Absolute, 142. 

55. Time and Place 143 

1. Time ; 2. Space ; 3. Place (Locative Form, 145) ; 

4. Way by which. 

56. Use of Prepositions 146 

3. Syntax of the Verb. 

57. Use of Moods .148 

1. Indicative; 2. Subjunctive (Independent or Depend- 
ent ; 3. Hortatory ; 4. Optative ; 5. Concessive ; 
6. Dubitative) ; 7. Imperative; 8. Infinitive (Com- 
plementary, 154; With Subject- Accusative, 155; 
Historical, 156). 

58. Use of Tenses 157 

1. Indicative; 2. Present (Conative, 157; Historical, 
158); 3. Imperfect; 4. Future; 5. Perfect; 6. Plu- 
perfect ; 7. Puture-Perfect ; 8. Epistolary Tenses ; 
9. Of Subjunctive; 10. Sequence of Tenses (Primary 
and Secondary, 162) ; 11. Of Infinitive. 

59. Conditional Sentences 166 

1. Protasis and Apodosis; 2. Particular and General Con- 
ditions ; 3. Present and Past Conditions ; 4. Future 
Conditions; 5. General Conditions. 

60. Implied Conditions 172 

1. Condition Disguised ; 2. Condition Omitted. 

61. Conditional Particles 174 

1. Comparative; 2. Concessive; 3. Provisory; 4. Mean- 
ing and Use. 

62. Relations of Time 176 

1. Use as in Protasis ; 2. Absolute and Relative Time, 
(Cum temporal, 178; causal, 180). 

63. Cause or Reason 181 

1. With Indicative ; 2. With Subjunctive. 



CONTENTS. XV 

Sect. Page. 

64. Purpose (Final Clauses) 182 

1. Relatives or Conjunctions ; 2. Forms. 

65. Consequence or Result (Consecutive Clauses) .... 183 

1. Subjunctive with ut (ue) ; 2. Of Characteristic. 

66. Intermediate Clauses 185 

1. Subjunctive of Citation; 2. Dependent Clauses. 

67. Indirect Discourse 187 

1. Indirect Narrative (Subject- Accusative, Relative Clau- 
ses, Conditional Sentences, Questions), 188; 2. In- 
direct Questions, 190 ; 3. Indirect Commands, 191. 

68. Wishes and Commands 192 

69. Relative Clauses (Classification of) 193 

70. Substantive Clauses 193 

1. Classification ; 2. Accusative and Infinitive, 194 ; 
3. Clauses of Purpose, 195; 4. Clauses of Result, 
197 ; 5. Indicative with quod, 199. 

71. Questions 200 

1. Interrogative Particles ; 2. Double Questions ; 3. Ques- 
tion and Answer. 

72. Participles 202 

1. Distinctions of Tense; 2. Adjective use; 3. Predi- 
cate use ; 4. Future Participle ; 5. Gerundive. 

73. Gerund and Gerundive 206 

1. Gerund; 2. Gerundive; 3. Construction of Cases. 

74. Supine 209 

75. General Rules of S^Titax 210 

76. Arrangement 212 

1. Normal Order; 2. Emphasis; 3. Structure (Periodic). 

PART III. — PROSODY. 

77. Rhythm 215 

78. Rules of Quantity 215 

1. General Rules ; 2. Final Syllables ; 3. Penultimate 
Syllables (Increment of Nouns and Verbs). 

79. Feet 220 

80. Scanning 222 

81. Metre 223 

82. Forms of Verse 224 

83. Early Prosody 232 

84. Reckoning of Time 233 

85. Measures of Value 235 



Appendix • 237 



LATIN GRAMMAR 



PART FIRST. 
FORMS OF WORDS (ETYMOLOGY). 



1. Alphabet. 

The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, 
wanting vr, 

Note. — The letter w is found, however, in many modern Latm 
words, especially proper names. 

1. Classification^ — The letters of the alphabet are 
classified as follows : — 

a. Vowels (litterae vocales, or voice-letters) : a, e, i, o, u, y. 
The following are Diphthongs (double-vowels) : ae (as), au, eu, 
oe (oe), ei, ui. 

b. Consonants (litterae consonantes, i.e., sounding-with the 
vowels) ; — 

Mutes : Labial surd p sonant b spirant f (v) nasal m 
Lingual ,, t ,, d ,, n 

Palatal ,, c(k) „ g ,, h „ [ng] 

Double Consonants, x (cs), z (ds). 

Liquids: 1, m, n, r. — Sibilants: surd s, sonant z. 

The letters i (j) and u (v) at the beginning of a syllable be- 
fore a vowel, also u in quis, suadeo, &c., are Semi- vowels. 

The consonants f, g, p, z, are never used at the end of a word. 

Note. — The Aspirate (or breathing) h follows in inflection the 
rule of palatals ; and was originally, in many words, a harsh guttural 
(kh), hke the Greek \, or the Spanish j. Its later sound was very 
shght, and in most languages derived from Latin has quite disappeared. 
Sometimes, as in aheneus (=aeneus), it seems to be used only to 
separate two vowels. It is not reckoned as a consonant in Prosody. 



2 EARLY FORMS. CHANGES. [1:2,3. 

2. Early Forms. — The alphabet in the time of Cicero 
(N. D. ii. 37) consisted of " one and twenty letters." These 
were, — 

a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, x. 

y and z were added, in words derived from Greek, i and u, 
when used as consonants (*' semi- vowels "), having the sound of 
y and w, are generally written j and v: as, juvenis for iuuenis. 

U. In early use, c was not distinguished in form or sound from 
g. After the distinction was made, C was still used, convention- 
ally, as the initial of names (Gains, Gnaeus) beginning properly 
with G. It came, in later use, to take the place of k, which was 
retained only in abbreviations, or as the initial letter of a few 
words, as Kalendae, Karthago, in which it is followed by a. 

h. Till after the age of Augustus, u was never, in good use, 
preceded in the same syllable by u or v. In many words, as in 
volt, servos, o was written where later custom allows u ; while 
c was regularly used for qu in such words as cum (for quum), 
ecus (for equus), relicus (for reliquus), locuntur (for lo- 
quuntur), and the like ; also in cotidie (for quotidie), and 
a few other words. The old forms quom (for cum) and quor 
(for cur) are also found. 

€• At the end of a few words, — as sed, apud, illud, — 
t was anciently written instead of d. In words ending in -s, 
final s was often elided (Cic. Orat. 48), as in qualist (qualis-est) ; 
plenu' fidei (Senect. 1). 

3. Changes. — Letters are often changed, according to 

general laws of inflection {vowel-increase)^ or to secure an 

easier or smoother sound {euphonic change) ; or have been 

altered or lost through long use {phonetic decay). Of such 

changes are the following : — 

a. Vowels are strengthened in inflection and derivation {vowel- 
increase): as, ago, egi (cf tell, told)'^ disco, doceo (cf. fall, fell; 
sit, set) ; pendo, pondus ; persono, persona ; perfidus, fidus, 
foedus (cf. bind J band). 

Note. — The primitive vowel-sound may be assumed to be a, as 
in father. Starting with this, and gradually contracting the palate, 
we form in succession the sound of e (a) and i (ee), leading to the 
semi-vowel j (?/). By contracting the lips, we in like manner form 
the sound of o and u {oo), leading to the semi-vowel v (iv). By 
contracting both palate and lips, we form the French sound of u, — 
in Greek v, and in Latin y. This, which is ^ 

called the Vowel- Scale, is of great service in 
tracing the modi6 cations of vowel-sounds. It . : 
may be represented thus : — i» J 7 v, u 



1: 3] EUPHONIC CHANGES. 3 

6. Yowels are weakened by negligent pronunciation for long 
periods of time {phonetic decay). Thus, on one side of the scale, 
a becomes e, then i ; or, on the other, becomes o, then u ; while 
u and i meet in the French u (y): as, agmen, agminis; facio, 
conficio, confectum ; salio, exsulto ; sepelio, sepultus ; ebur, 
eboris ; maxumus, maximus (cf. master, mister, mistress). 

c» Two vowels coming together are contracted into a single 
sound: as, obit (obiit), cogo (co-ago), nil (nihil), debeo (de- 
hibeo), coetus (coitus), ingeni (cf. mayhem, maim). 

d. The semi-vowels j and v are lost before a vowel, contrac- 
tion sometimes also taking place : as, obicit (objicit), conicit 
(conjicit), cunctus (conjunctus), rursus (reversus), contio 
(conventio), motum (movitum). 

e. Between two vowels, or before m or n, s becomes r: as, 
genus, generis; maereo, maestus; veternus (vetus-nus), 
carmen (casmen). 

/. When two consonants come together by derivation, inflec- 
tion, or composition, an easier pronunciation is secured thus : — 

1. The first is entirely assimilated to the second. Thus, a liquid, 
— m, n, or (less frequently) r — before another liquid is changed to 
that liquid [but r is not changed to m or n] : as, collego (con-lego), 
corrlgo (com-rego), illudo (in-ludo), illico (in loco), inteliego (inter-lego), 
aseUiis (asin[ii\lus) . So d before 1: as in lapillus (lapidulus) ; and b 
(rarely) before a Uquid : as, summitto (suhmitto). 

2. The former is assimilated in kind. Thus : — a. A sonant before a 
surd becomes surd : as, tego, text (x=cs), tectum ; nuho, nupsi, nuptum ; 
coquo, coxi, coctum. — 6. A surd before a sonant becomes sonant, as in 
segmentum (seco). — c. A labial nasal before a dental mute sometimes 
becomes dental: contendo (com-te?ido), jandudum ( jam dudum), quantus 
(quamtus). — d. A dental nasal before a labial sometimes becomes labial: 
as, impono (in-pono). — e. d and t before t sometimes become s (see 4) : 
as, equester (equet-ter), est (edt). 

3. The former is lost, having probably been first assimilated. 
Thus : — a. d and t are lost before s, but sometimes only assimilated : 
as, pedes (pedets), vas (vads, vadis), esse (edse, edo). — h. c and g" are 
lost before t and s when 1 or r precedes: as, sartus (^=sarctus, sar- 
cio), mulsi (^mulgsi; mulgeo), indultus (=indulgtus, indulgeo). — c. c and g 
are sometimes lost before m and n : as, exdmen (exagmen), luna (iuc- 
na), lumen (luc-men). 

4. The second is partially assimilated to the first (as in EngHsh 
wrecked becomes, in pronouncing, reckt) ; in this case both are often 
changed. Thus, after n and 1 — rarely after other letters — t be- 
comes s (the continued sound corresponding to the explosive t) : as, 
mansus (=mantus, maneo), pulsus (pello), casus (cado), passus (=^pattus, 
patior), sparsus (=spargtus, spargo), tensus (tendo, but also tentus),fixus 
(figo, but fictus from Jingo), maximus (for mag-timus), lapsus (labor), 
passus (pando). 

Note. — After m, before s or t, p is inserted for euphony: as, 
sumo, sum-psi, sumptum. So hiemps for hieins. 



4 ASSIMILATION. VARIATIONS. [1^ 3- 

g. Especially the final consonant of prepositions was assimilated 
to the initial consonant of verbs. 

Thus, ad is assimilated before c, g, p, t ; less regularly before 
1, r, s, and rarely before m ; while before f, n, q, the form ad is 
to be preferred ; — ab is not assimilated, but may take the form a, 
au, or abs; — in com (con, co), m is retained before b, p, m ; is 
assimilated before 1, n, r ; is changed to n before c, d, f, g, i, q, 
s V ; varies between m and n before p ; is sometimes assimilated 
(otherwise n) before r andl; and loses the final m in conecto, co- 
niveo, conitor, conubiuni ; — in usually changes n to m before b, m, 
p; before 1 the better orthography retains n; — ob and sub are 
assimilated before c, f, g, p, and sometimes before m ; sub also 
before r; and, in early Latin, b of these prepositions sometimes 
becomes p before s or t. The inseparable amb loses b before a 
consonant, and m is sometimes assimilated ; — cii'cum loses m before 
a vowel ; — s of dis before a vowel becomes r, and before a conso- 
nant is lost or assimilated; — the d of red and sed is generally lost 
before a consonant. 

Note. — In most of these cases the later editions prefer the 
unaltered forms throughout ; but the changes given above have good 
authority. Others, which are corruptions of the middle ages (as 
assiim for adsum), would better be avoided. 

h» The combinations ci and ti before a vowel are found inter- 
changed in many words : as in nuntius or nunclus ; contio or con- 
cio ; but in these cases only one is correct : as, contio, dicio. 

Note. — The substitution of c for t is an example of phonetic 
decay, and belongs to a later period of the language. In Italian, z, 
and in Spanish, c, has regularly taken the place of t in such combi- 
nations : as in nazlone, nacion. The sound of s (assihilation) or of sh 
traceable in them led gradually to the adoption of this as the regular 
sound of c before e or i. 

i. The aspirate h is occasionally used to indicate the hard 
sound of c, as in pulcher for pulcer. Many words are written 
sometimes with and sometimes without an initial h: as, arena 
or harena, ariolor or hariolor, erus or herns. The combina- 
tions ph, th, are found only in words taken from the Greek. 

h. The following words are variously spelt in different editions, 
inferior or rejected forms being marked f : — 

■ Adolescens, adulescens ; ancora, ^ anchoi^a ; annulus, anulus ; arctus, 
artus ; ccecus, coacus ; ccelum, caelum ; cceruleuSy coeruleus ; causa, caussa ; 
ccespes, cespes ; ceteri, f cceteri ; ccena, coena, cena ; condicio, t conditio ; con- 
junx, t conjux ; contio, f concio ; dicio, t ditio ; dumtaxat, duntaxat ; epi- 
stola, epistula ; eumdem, eundem ; exsisto, existo (and other compounds 
of f a: before s) ; femina, ^faimina;fenus,fcenus,f(Enus; heres,'\ hceres ; 
hcedus, t hcedus ; hiejns(ps), f hijems ; idcirco, t iccirco ; inimo, imo ; inclutus, 
t inclytus ; intellego, intelligo ; lacrima, ^lacryma ; litera, littera; litus, tlit- 
tus ; lubet, lihet ; mceror, vioeror; milia, ] millia ; multa, mulcta ; 'tncE, ne; 
neqaidquam, nequiquam ; numquain, minquam ; i nuncio, mint io ; pa all us, 
paulus ; quicquid, quidquid ; religio, relligio ; retuli, rettuli ; silva, ^ sijlva ; 



1. 2.] ALPHABET. PRONUNCIATION. 5 

solenms, solemnis ; solerSj sollers; sulfur ^ ^sulphur; tamquam, tanquam ; 
thesaurus, thensaurus ; thus, tus ; tiro, t ty^o ; uniquam, unquam ; ungo, 
unguo ; verto, vorto ; also, the gerund-forms -endus or -undus ; and the 
superlative -imus or -umus. 

Note. — Many of the above variations are due to the practice of 
writing from dictation, or by the ear, by which most MS. copies of 
the classics were made, — a single reader often dictating to numerous 
copyists, whose spelUng was often corrupt, and without authority. 

4. Combinations, — Two words are often united in 
writing, and sometimes in sound. 

a. Conjunctions or other particles are thus connected : as in 
etenim, jamdiu, siquis, and siquidem. 

So the adverbial combinations quare, quamobrem, &c., as in 
English nevertheless, notwithstanding. 

b. The verb est, is, is joined with the preceding word, 
especially in the old poets, or when the two would be united by 
elision : as, homost, periculumst. 

c# Similar contractions are found in vin' (visne), scin' (scis- 
ne), sis (si vis), sodes (si audes), as in English, don'^t, wonH, 

5. Syllables. — In the division of syllables, a single con- 
sonant between two vowels is to be written with the latter. 

a. This rule is usually extended to double consonants, or any 
combination of consonants which can be used to begin a word : as, 
ho-spes, ma-gnus, di-xit. 

b. In compounds, the parts should be separated : as, ab-est, 
ob-latus. 

Note. — Custom allows many other departures from the rule. 

c. A syllable preceded by a vowel in the same word is called 
pure ; when preceded by a consonant, impure. 

d. An initial syllable ending, or a final syllable beginning, with 
a vowel, is called open ; otherwise, it is called close. 



2. Pronunciation. 

1. Moman. — The Eoman pronunciation of the Vowels 
was, no doubt, nearly like the Italian ; which, with little 
variation, is that found in most of the continental languages 
of Europe. That of some of the Consonants is more uncer- 
tain. In the system of pronunciation founded on ancient 



6 PRONUNCIATION. QUANTITY. [2 : 2. 3: I. 

use, the long and short vowels are sounded respectively as 
follows : — 

a as in father, a as in fast. 

e ,, rein. e ,, met. 

i ,, machine, i „ pin. 

6 ,, holy. 6 ,, wholly. 

u ,, rude. ii ,, full. 

Note. — It is probable that y (also u in maxumus, &c.) was simi- 
lar to the French u ; it is usually, however, sounded like i. 

a. The final or unaccented open sound of the vowels is nearly 
as in the last syllable of comma, yesterday, pity, hollow, cuckoo. 

Ij^ In Diphthongs, each vowel has its proper sound: thus, ae 
has nearly the sound of ay, au of ow^ oe of oy, ui of we, 

€• Of consonants, c and g are always hard, as in can, give ; 
j has the sound of y, v of "w, and n before palatals of ng ; the 
combination bs is like ps, ch like k, and ph like f. 

Note. — The sound of the vowels and diphthongs, as above given, 
has been generally adopted in this country. In regard to the conso- 
nants c, g, j, V, there is still considerable difference of usage. 

2. 3Iodern, — Modern custom has generally allowed 
Latin to be pronounced in each country according to the 
rules of its own language. What is known as the English 
Method adopts the following : — 

a. The vowels and consonants have the same sound as in 
English. But there are no silent letters (except in scanning verse, 
by the usage called Elision) ; such words as dies, mare, audiere, 
pauperiei, having each as many syllables as vowels or diphthongs. 

h. By American custom, final a is pronounced in the Italian 
way, as in comma. But in the monosyllables a, da, sta, qua, 
some persons retain the English sound. 

c. The diphthongs ae, oe, are pronounced like ee ; au like aw ; 
eu like ew ; ei and ui like i in kite ; es and (in plural words) os 
at the end of a word, as in the English disease, morose. 

d. The consonants c and g are made soft (like s and j) 
before e, i, y, ae, oe, eu ; ch is always hard, as in chasm. 

3. Quantity. 

1. Quantity is the relative time occupied in pronouncing a 
syllable, — a long syllable being equal to two short ones. 



3: 2. 4.] QUANTITY. ACCENT. 7 

Note. — The distinction of Quantity was carefully observed 
by the ancients, but came to be almost wholly disregarded in 
later times except in the composition of Latin verse. 

2, Some of the most general rules of quantity are the fol- 
lowing : — 

a. A vowel before another vowel is short : as in via, nYhil. 

6. A diphthong is long : as in aedes, foedus. 

c. A syllable formed by contraction is long : as, mi (mihi) ; 
ml (nihil) ; intrarat (intraverat) ; nemo (ne hom.o). 

Note. — In many text-books and old editions, contraction is de- 
noted by a circumflex : as, mi, intrarat. 

d* A syllable in which a vowel is followed by two consonants, 
or a double consonant, is long : as in rectus, dxixit. Sometimes 
the vowel itself is made long, as before ns m praesens. 

e, A syllable in which a short vowel is followed by a mute with 
1 or r is common, — that is, it may be long in verse : as, alacris. 

Remark. — Many final syllables, originally long, are always found 
short in classic Latin : for example, the stem-vowel a of the first 
declension. 

Note. — The sign (") denotes that a vowel is hng; {^) that it is 
short; (-) that it is common. 

For particular rules of Quantity, see § 78. 



4. Accent. 

1. The accent of Latin words never falls on the final 
syllable, but is confined to one of the two preceding. 

2. The following are general rules of accent: — 

a. Words of two syllables are always accented on the first 
syllable: as, e'rant, they were; di'es, day. 

h. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the 
Penult, if that is long: as, axxii oxxSj friend ; if it is short or com- 
mon, then on the Antepenult : as, do'minus, a'lacris. 

Note. — The Penult is the last syllable but one ; the Antepenult, 
the last but two. 

c "When an Enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on 
the syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short: as, 
dea'que, amare've, tibi'ne, ita'que, and so, as distinguished 
from i'taque, therefore. 



8 ACCENT. INFLECTION. [5 : I, 2. 

Note. — The acute accent (') is sometimes used to denote stress of 
voice; the grave (^), to mark an adverb or conjunction; the circumflex 
('), the ablative in a, the perfect in ere, or a contracted syllable. 



5. Inflection. 

1. Inflection is a change made in the form of a word, to 
show its granmiatical relations. 

a. Changes of inflection sometimes take place in the body of a 
word, but oftener in its termination : as, vox, a voice ; vocis, of 
a voice : voce, I call ; vocat, he calls ; vocavit, he has called, 

b» Terminations of inflection had originally an independent 
meaning, and correspond nearly to the use of prepositions or per- 
sonal pronouns in English : thus, in vocat, the termination is 
equivalent to he or she ; and in vocis, to the preposition of, 

c. Changes of inflection in the body of a verb usually denote 
relations of tijne or manner, and correspond to the use of auxiliary 
verbs in English : thus, in frangit (root frag-), he breaks or is 
breaking, the form of the word indicates Present time or continued 
action ; while in fregit, he broke or has broken, it indicates Past time 
or Completed action. 

2, The body of a word, to which the terminations are 
attached, is called the Stem. 

a. The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations ; 
but, in general, it cannot be used without some termination to 
express these. Thus the stem voc- denotes voice ; with -s added 
it becomes vox, a voice or the voice, as the subject or agent of an 
action ; with -is it becomes vocis, and signifies of a voice. 

h, A still more primitive form, expressino^ the main idea less 
definitely, and common also to other words, either in the same or 
other languages, is called a Root. For example, the root sta is 
found in the Sanskrit tisthdmi, Greek iarij/ii, Latin sistere and 
stare, German stehen, and English stand. 

Again, the root of the stem voc- is voc, which means not to 
call, or / call, or calling, but merely call; and cannot be used to 
mean any thing -without terminations. With a it becomes voca-, 
the stem of the present vocamus, we call; with avi- it is the 
stem of the perfect vocavi, / called ; with ato- it becomes the 
stem of the participle vocatos, called; with ation- it becomes 
the stem of vocatioiiis, of a calling. With its vowel lencrthened 
it becomes the stem of vox, a voice (that by which we call) ; with 
alis added it means belonging to a voice ; with ula, a little voice. 



5: 3,4- 6: I.] INFLECTION. GENDER. 9 

Note. — Thus, in inflected languages, words are built up from 
Roots, which at a very early time, long before Latin was a distinct 
language, were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in 
Chinese. Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection, 
become Words. The process by which they are modified, in the vari- 
ous forms of derivatives and compounds, is called Stem-building. 

Cm The Stem is sometimes the same with the Root : as in 
due-is, fer-t; but is more frequently formed from the root, 
either (1) by changing or lengthening its vowel, as in reg-is, 
duc-o; (2) by the addition or insertion of a consonant, as in 
tendo, pango; (3) by the addition of a terminal vowel, as in 
fugis, fuga ; or (4) by derivation and composition, following the 
laws of development peculiar to the language. 

d. The terminations of inflection are variously modified by 
combining; with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, leading 
to the various forms of Declension and Conjugation. 

Note. — A termination beginning with a vowel is called an open 
affix ; one beginning with a consonant, a close affix. When a close 
affix is joined to a consonant-stem, there is usually either a euphonic 
change, as rexi for reg-si, or a vowel appears, as reg-i-hus. But in most 
cases, what is called a connecting vowel really belongs to the stem, 
as in voca-muSy regi-mus. 

3. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles have in- 
flections of declension, to denote gender, number, and case; 
Adjectives and Adverbs, of comparison, to denote degree ; 
and Verbs of conjugation, to denote voice, mood, tense, num- 
ber, and person. 

4. Those parts of speech which are not inflected are called 
Particles : these are Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inter- 
jections, with Adverbs of time, place, and manner. 

Note. — The term Particles is sometimes limited to such words as 
num, -ne, 8^n {interrogative) ^ non, ne (negative), si {conditional), &c., 
which are used simply to indicate the form or construction of a sen- 
tence. Interjections are not properly to be classed among parts of 
speech, and differ little from inarticulate sounds. For convenience, 
a list is given of those in most common use, following the conjunc- 
tions (p. 95). 

6. Gender. 

!• The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or gram- 

matical. 

a, Natural gender is distinction as to the sex of the object 
denoted : as, puer, hoy ; puella, girl ; donum, gift, 

1* 



10 GENDER. [6 : I, 2. 

&• Many masculine nouns have a corresponding feminine form : 
as, servus, serva, slave; cliens, clienta, client; victor, vic- 
trix, conqueror. Most designations of persons (as, nauta, sailor^ 
miles, soldier), usually though not necessarily male, are masculine. 

c. Grammatical gender is a like distinction where no sex 
exists in the object, and is shown by the form of the adjective 
joined with it: as, lapis magnus (m.), a great stone; manus 
mea (f.), my hand. 

d, A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belong- 
ing to a class : as, mancipium tuum, your slave. Names of classes 
or bodies of persons may be of either gender : as, exercitus (m.), 
acies (f.), and agmen (n.), army; and the feminine operae, 
workmen, copiae, troops. 

Note. — What we call grammatical gender is in most cases the 
product of the imagination at a rude age, when language was in the 
course of growth. Thus a River was seen, or a Wind was felt, as a 
living creature, violent and strong, and so is masculine ; a Month is a 
guide or divider of tasks, and so is masculine ; and the fable of Atlas 
shows how similar living attributes were ascribed to Mountains, 
which, in the northern fables, are the bones of giants. Again, the 
Earth, or a country or city, seems the mother of its progeny ; the Tree 
shelters and ripens its fruit, as a brooding bird its nest of eggs ; and, 
to this day, a Ship is always referred to by a feminine pronoun. 

Again, in the East and South, the Sun, from its fierce heat and 
splendor, is masculine, and its paler attendant, the Moon, feminine : 
while, among northern nations, the Sun (perhaps for its comforting 
warmth) is feminine, and the Moon (the appointer of works and 
days) masculine. The rules of grammatical gender only repeat and 
extend these early workings of the fancy. 

2. Names of Male beings, together with Rivers, Winds, 

and Mountains are masculine; names of Female beings, 

Cities, Countries, Plants, of many Animals (especially Birds), 

and of most abstract Qualities, are feminine. 

Note. — Most of the above may be recognized by their termina- 
tions, according to the rules of gender under the several declensions. 

a. Names of Rivers are masculine, except a few, chiefly in a. 

These are Albula, Allia, Druentia, Duria, Garumna, Matrdna, Mo- 
sella ; also Lethe and Styx. Many are variable. 

Note. — Names of Months are properly Adjectives, the masculine 
noun mensis being understood. 

&. Names of Towns, Islands, and Trees in us are feminine; 
also, many names of Plants and Gems in us. 

c. Indeclinable nouns. Terms or Phrases used as nouns, and 
words quoted merely for their forms, are neuter : as, nihil, nothing ; 
gummi, gum ; scire tuum, your knowing ; triste vale, a sad fare- 
well ; hoc ipsum diu, this same word diu ; illud ruisse, illud 
aider e (Plin.), that crash y that blaze. 



6: 3? 4- "7-] GENDER. CASE. 11 

3. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, 
according to the sex of the object. These are said to be of 
Common Gender: as, exsul, exile; bos, ox ov cow. 

Note. — When a noun signifying a thing without life is both mas- 
culine and feminine, — as, dies, day ; finis, endy — it is sometimes said 
to be of Doubtful Gender. 

4. A few names of animals are always connected with 

adjectives of the same gender, either masculine or feminine, 

independent of sex. They are called Epicene. 

Thus lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpes, fox, feminine. 
To denote a male fox we may say, vulpes mascula ; or a female 
hare, lepus femina* 



7. Case. 

There are in Latin six Cases, which express the 
relations of nouns to other words. They are usually 
put in the following order: 1. Nominative; 2. Gen- 
itive ; 3. Dative ; 4. Accusative ; 5. Vocative ; 6. Ab- 
lative. 

1. The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a propo- 
sition: as, 

pater meus adest, my father is here, 

2. The Genitive (of) is used like the English posses- 
sive ; also with many adjectives and verbs, especially those of 
memory or feeling : as, 

patris ejus amicus miseretur mei, his father'' s friend pities me, 

3. The Dative (to or for) is the case of the Indirect 
Object, and is used to denote the person whose interest is 
concerned: as, 

dedit mihi culteUum : magno mihi usui erat, he gave me a 
pocket-knife : it was of great service to me. 

4. The Accusative {objective) is the case of the Direct 

Object, and is used after most prepositions : as, 

pater me ad se vocavit et in hortum duxit, [my] father 
called me to him, and led me into the garden. 



12 CASE. DECLENSION. [7. 8: I. 

5. The Vocative is used in address : as, 

hue veni, care mi filiole, come here, my dear little son. 

Note. — As the Vocative is independent of the other words in a 
sentence, it is by some grammarians not reckoned as a Case. 

6. The Ablative (5y, from, with) is used with many 
. verbs and prepositions, especially to denote separation or 

instrument: as, 

in horto ludebamus, et cultello me laesit, we were playing in 
the garden, and he hurt me with a knife. 

Note. — All, excepting the nominative and vocative, are by the 
ancient grammarians called " Oblique Cases." 

7. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces 
of another case (the Locative), denoting the place where, — 

* generally the same in form as the dative (§ 55. 3. c) : as, 

Romae vel Athenis esse velim, I should like to be at Borne 
or Athens. 

8. Declension. 

1. There are five Declensions, or modes of declining nouns. 
They are distinguished by the termination of the Genitive 
Singular, and by the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem. 

Decl. 1. Gen. Sing, ae Characteristic a (anciently a) 

„ 2. „ i(ius) „ 6 

,, 3. ,, is ,, i or a Consonant 

,, 4. ,, us (uis) „ ii 

,, 5. „ ei ,, e 

a. The stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant-stem, by 
omitting the case-ending; if a vowel-stem, by substituting for 
the case-ending the characteristic vowel. 

Note. — Eor the division of vowel and consonant-stems in the 
Third Declension, see § 11. 

&. The Nominative of most masculine and feminine nouns 
(except in the first declension) is formed from -the Stem by adding s. 

Note 1. — Many, however, end in o, or in the liquids 1, n, r, — 
the original s (sometimes with the final letter also) having been lost 
through phonetic decay. In some (as in Jilius) the stem-vowel is 
modified before the final s ; and in some, as in ager, a vowel is 
inserted in the stem. 



8: 2,3.] 



DECLENSION. 



13 



Note 2. — The s of the nominative is the remnant of an old 
demonstrative sa, which is found (with modifications) in the Sanskrit 
personal pronoun, in the Greek article, and in the English she. 

2. The following are general Rules of Declension : — 

a. The Vocative is always the same with the Nominative, ex- 
cept in the singular of nouns in us of the second declension. 

Note. — In the first and second declensions the vocative ends in 
the (modified) stem-vowel. Most of the words likely to be used in 
address are of this form; and, in practice, few other words have a 
vocative. 

b. In Neuters, the nominative and accusative are always alike, 
and in the plural end in a. 

c. Except in some neuters, the accusative singular always ends 
in m, and the accusative plural in s. 

d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the 
others) the dative singular ends in i 

e* The dative and ablative plural are always alike. 

/• The genitive plural always ends in um. 

S. Case-Endings* The original terminations of the 
Cases, in Latin, were probably the following: — 



Sing, M., F. 


N. 


Flur. 


M., F. N. 


Nom. s (or lost) 


m, - 




es a 


Gen. OS (is) 






um, rum(sum) 


Dat. i 






ibus 


Ace. m, cm 


m, - 




es a 


Abl. ed 






ibus 



Note. — These became so worn by use, and so united with the 
stem, that they are distinguishable only in consonant-stems. In some 
instances, one case was substituted for another, or two were merged 
in one. The combinations are given below as case-endings. The name 
*' stem " is sometimes, conveniently though incorrectly, given to that 
part of the word — as serv- in servus — which precedes the case-ending. 



Decl. I. 



II. 



Sing. 
N. a 



G. 8e(ai)e5 
D. 88 (at) 
A. am. an, en 
V. a e 

A. a e 

Plur. 

N. V. ae 

G. arumjum) 
D. A. is (abus) 
A. as 



c, as, esviS, um os, on eu$ 



i (ius) o, u 

o(i) 

um on 

6 a 

o 



ei 

ei, eo 
ea 
eu 
eo 



1 a 
6runi(um, cm) 6n 
is (obus) 

OS 



III. 

S - (See p. 23.) 
is yos, ds 

i 

em (im) in, yn 2 
(as nom.) ?, y 
e(i). i 



es, a, ia 
um, ium 
ibus 
es (is), a, ia 



IV. 

tis, u 
us (uis) 

ui(u) 
um, u 

tis, u 
u 



^s us, ua 
uum 
ibus(ubus) 
25 i us, ua 



es 

ei(e) 
ei (e) 

ein 

es 
e 



es 
erum 
ebus 

es 



N.B. Rare forms in parenthesis; Greek forms in italics. 



14 NOUNS. — FIRST DECLENSION. [9: 1,2,3. 

NOUNS. 



9, First Declension. 

The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends 
in a. Latin nouns have the Nominative like the stem. 





SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Kom. 


steUa, a star. 


Stellae, stars. 


Gen. 


stellae, of a star. 


stellarum, of stars. 


Dat. 


stellae, to a star. 


stelliff, to stars. 


Ace. 


stellam, a star. 


Stellas, stars. 


Yoc. 


Stella, thou star I 


stellae,' ye stars ! 


Abl. 


Stella with a star. 


stellis, with stars. 



1. Gender, Most nouns of the first declension are Feminine. 
Nearly all the exceptions are such as are masculine from their sig- 
nification : as, nauta, sailor. Also, Ha-dxia, the Adriatic. 

2. Case Forfns, — a* The genitive singular anciently ended 
in ai, which is occasionally found in a few authors : as, aulai. The 
same ending occurs in the dative, but only as a diphthong. 

&. There is also an old genitive in as, found in the word familias 
used in certain combinations, as, pater (mater, filius, filia) famil- 
ias, father of a family ^ Sfc. 

€0 The Locative form for the singular ends in ae, and for the 
plural in is : as, Romae, Athenis. 

d. The genitive plural is sometimes found in um instead of 
arum, especially in compounds with -cola and -gena, signifying 
dwelling and descent : as, caelicolum, of the heavenly ones. 

e. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter, 
liberta, freed-woman, equa, mare, mula, she-mule, end in an older 
form -abus. But, except when the two sexes (as in wiUs, &c.) 
are mentioned together, the form in is is also used. 

3. Oveeh Nouns, — Some Greek nouns (chiefly proper 
names) end in as, es (m.), and e (f.) in the nominative, and an 
or en in the accusative ; those in e have the genitive in es 
(stem a or e) : as, 

comet {^,). laurel (F,). 

N. cometes (a) daphne 

G. cometae daphnes (ae) 

D. cometae daphne (ae) 

Ac. conieten(ain) daphnen 

V. comet a daphne 

Ab. cometa(e) daphne (a) 



-ffineas 


Anchises 


-aSneae 


Anchisae 


-^neae 


Anchisae 


-^nean (am) 


Anchisen 


-^nea (a) 


Anchise (a) 


.^nea 


Anchise (a) 



10: I, 2,3.] 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



15 



Note. — This form is found only in the singular ; the plural is 
regular: as, cometce, arum, &c. It includes (besides proper names) 
about thirty -five words, several being names of plants ; among others 
the following, those marked t having also regular forms in a : — 
hu\e, council ; geometves, geometer ; i greimmatice, grammar ; harpe, 
sickle; magice, magic; fniusice, music; fode, ode; pandectes, 
repertory/; i pa.tria.vchQS, patriarch ; i prophetess prophet ; sophistes, 
sophist; ttetrarches, tetrarch ; thymele, leader' s-stand ; t tiaras, tiara. 



10. Second Declension. 

The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends 

in (as of vir, viro-^ and of servus, servo-^). 

Note. — This form is an original a-stem, to which the a-stem of 
the first declension is the corresponding feminine. 

1. The Nominative is formed from the Stem by adding s 
(in neuters m), the characteristic 6 being weakened to u. 

2. In most nouns whose stem ends in ro-, the s is not 
added, but the is lost, e being inserted before r. 

Thus a^er, field (stem agro-), is the same as the Greek d7pds. 
The exceptions are, hesperus, humerus, juniperus, morns, numerus, uterus. 







SINGULAR 


. 








Boy. 


Book. 


Slave. 




Gift. 


Nom. 


puer 


liber 


servtis 


(OS) 


donum 


Gen. 


pueri 


libri 


servi 




doni 


Dat. 


puero 


libro 


serv5 




dono 


Ace. 


puerum 


libriim 


servum 


(om) 


donum 


Yoc. 


puer 


Hber 


serve 




donum 


Abl. 


puero 


libro 

PLUKAL. 


serv5 




dono 


Nom. 


pueri 


libri 


servi 




dona 


Gen. 


puerorum 


librorum 


servorum 


donorum 


Dat. 


pueris 


libris 


servis 




donis 


Ace. 


pueros 


libros 


servos 




dona 


Voc. 


pueii 


libri 


servi 




dona 


Abl. 


pueris 


libris 


servis 




donis 



Note. — The old form os, om (for us, um), is sometimes used 
after u or v : as, servos, servom (§ 1. 2. 6.). 

3. Gender* — Nouns ending in us (os), er, ir, are Mascu- 
line (exc. on p. 16) ; those ending in um (on) are Neuter. (But 
which stems are M. or N. can only be learned from the Dictionary.) 



16 SECOND DECLENSION. [10: 4, 5, 6. 

a. But names of towns in us (os) are Feminine : as, Corin- 
thus. Also, arctus (os), tJie Polar Bear ; alvus, helhj ; carba- 
sus, linen (plural carbasa, sails, N.) ; colus, distaff; humus, 
qround ; vannus, winnowing-shovel ; with many names of Plants 
and Gems. 

b. The following are Neuter: pelagus, sea; ^Tirus, poison ; 
vulgus (rarely m.), the crowd. Their accusative, as of all neuters, 
is the same as the nominative. 

4. Case Forms* a» The Locative form for the singular of 
this declension ends in i: as, humi, on the ground ; Corinthi, at 
Corinth. For the plural, is: as, Philippis, at Philippi. 

b. The genitive of nouns in ius or ium is correctly written 
with a single i: as, fill, of a son; inge'ni, of genius. 

The same contraction occurs with the gen. sing, and the dat. 
and abl. plur. of nouns in aius and eius : as, Grais, Pompei. 

c. Proper names in ius lose e in the vocative: as, VergiTi; 
also, filius, son, genius, divine guardian ; and the possessive meus, 
viy: as, audi, rai fili, hear, my son, 

d. Greek names in ius have the vocative ie ; and adjectives 
derived from proper names — as Lacedaemonius — also form 
the vocative in ie. 

e. In the genitive plural, um (or, after v, om) is often found 
for orum, especially in poets. 

/. Deus, god, has vocative deus ; plural, nominative and voc- 
ative dei or di (dii) ; dative and ablative deis or dis (diis). 

For the genitive plural deorum, divum or divom (from 
divus) is often used. 

5. The following stems in ero, in which e belongs to the stem, 
retain e throughout : puer, hoy ; gener, son-in-law ; socer, father- 
in-law ; vesper, evening ; with compounds in -fer and -ger : as, 
liicifer, -feri, light-bringer ; armiger, -geri, armor-bearer. 

a. Vir, man, has the genitive viri ; the adjective satur, sated, 
has satiiri ; vesper has abl. vespere (loc. vesperi). 

6. Liber, a name of Bacchus, also has Liberi ; so, too, the 
pi ir. liberi, children. 

6. The following, which insert e, are declined like liber: 
ager, field; aper, hoar; arbiter, judge; auster, soutli-wind ; 
caper, goat; coluber, snake; conger, sea-eel; culter, knife; 
faber, smith ; fiber, heaver ; geometer, geometer ; magister, mas- 
ter ; minister, servant; oleaster, wild-olive ; onager (grus), wild- 
ass ; scomber (brus), mackerel. 



11, I.] THIRD DECLENSION. 17 

y. GreeTc Nouns, a. Many Greek names in eus, as Or- 
pheus (being of the third declension in Greek), have gen. ei 
or eos, dat. ei; ace. ea; voc. eu; abl. eo. 

h» Many in es, belonging to the third declension, have also a 
gen. in i: as, Thucydidi 

c. Some Greek names in er have a form in us : as, Teucer, 
Teucrus. 

d» About twenty words have the Greek ending 6s (m. or f.) 
or on (n.): as, 15tos, water-lily; parelion, mock-sun. Among 
these are the following : — 

Barbitos (on), lyre; miltos, cinnabar; my thos, fable ; nemos, 
district; rhythmos, rhythm; scopos, aim; spodos (f.), dross, 

11. Third Declension. 

Nouns of the Third Declension are most conveni- 
ently classed according to their Stems, whether ending 
in a vowel J a liquid ^ or a mute. 

I. Yowel-Stems. 

1. Yowel-stems of this declension end in i. Thus that of 
tnrris is turri- ; and that of mare, marl-. 

a. Nouns of this class are pari syllabic ; that is, the oblique 
cases of the singular have no more syllables than the nominative. 
(For exceptions in al, ar, see 2, c.) 

6. A few stems ending in u-, as of grus, sus, were treated as 
consonant-stems. (See in. 4, a.) 

2. The Nominative, except in neuters, is formed from the 

stem by adding s. 

a. About thirty nouns (as nubes) change i to e in the nom- 
inative (Compare Note, p. 22). 

These are acindceSj alces, ccedeSj cauteSy clades, compcU/es, confdges, 
crates, fames J files, Jides, labes, meles, moles, nubes, proles, propdges, sedes, 
sepes, sordes, strayeSy suboles, sudes, tabes, torques, tudes, vates, vehes, veires. 

h* The nominative of a few stems in ri- does not add s, but loses 
i, inserting e before r. These are imber, Unter, uter, venter. 

c. The nominative of neuters is the same as the stem, with the 
change of i to e. But, when i is preceded by al or ar, the e is 
lost (except in collar e, mare, navale, tibiale). 

Note. — This latter class were originally neuters of adjectives in 
alls, aris ; and, when used as adjectives, retain the e. They are the 
following : animal, cervical, cubital, puteal, toral, tribunal ; calcar, cochlear, 
exemplar, lacunar, laquear, luminar, palear, pulvlnar, torcular, vectlgal. 



18 



THIKD DECLENSION. 



[11,1. 







SINGULAR. 






Tower (¥.), 


Cloud {¥.). 


Sea ( N.). 


Spur (n.). 


Nom. 


turris 


nubes 


mare 


calcar 


Gen. 


turris 


nubis 


maris 


calcaris 


Dat. 


turri 


nubi 


mari 


calcari 


Ace. 


turrim (em) 


nubem 


mare 


calcar 


Voc. 


turris 


nubes 


mare 


calcar 


Abl. 


turri (e) 


nube 

PLURAL 


mari 


calcari 


Norn. 


turres 


nubes 


maria 


calcaria 


Gen. 


turrium 


nubium 


mariumi 


calcarium 


Dat. 


turribus 


nubibus 


maribus 


calcaribus 


Ace. 


turris (es) 


nubes 


maria 


calcaria 


Voc. 


turres 


nubes 


maria 


calcaria 


Abl. 


turribus 


nubibus 


maribus 


calcaribus 



3. Case Forms, a. The regular form of the accusative 
singular, m. and f., is im (as am, um, em of the other vowel- 
declensions). But, in most nouns, this was supplanted by the con- 
sonant-form em ; and it is only retained in the following : — 

1. Exclusively (1) in Greek nouns and names of rivers ; (2) in 
bur is, cucumis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis; (3) in adverbs in tim (being ace. 
of nouns in tis), with partim and amussim ; 

3. Along with em in fehris, restis, turris, securis, sementis, and (in 
one or two passages) in many other words. 

&. The regular form of the ablative singular is i (as in the 
other declensions a, o, u, e, with loss of the original d). This 
was also supplanted by e, and retained only — 

1. Exclusively (1) in those above having accusative in im; also 
securis, and the following adjectives used as nouns : cegualis, annalis, 
aqucdis, consular is, gentilis, molaris,primipilaris, tribulis ; (2) in neuters 
(as above), except baccar, jubar, and sometimes (in verse) mare, rete; 

2. Along with e in avis, clavis, febris, finis, ignis (always aqua et 
igni interdici), imber, navis, ovis, pelvis, puppis, sementis, strigilis, turris; 
and the following adjectives used as nouns : affinis, bipennis, canalis, 
familiaris, natalis, rivalis, sapiens, triremis, voccdis. 

3. The ablative of fames, hunger, is always of the Fifth declen- 
sion. The defective mane, morning, has sometimes abl. mani. 

4. Most names of towns in e — as Proineste, Ccere — and the 
mountain Soracte, have the ablative in e. 



11,11.] THIRD DECLENSION. LIQUID STEMS. 19 

C- The regular nominative plural would be is, but this is 
rarely found. The regular accusative is is common, but not 
exclusively used in any word. 

d. The regular genitive plural ium is retained by all except 
the following : — 

(1) ambages and tolucris (always urn) ; (2) vates (commonly um) ; 
(3) apis, ccedes, clades, suboles (rarely um) ; (4) canis,juvenis, mensis, had 
not originally vowel-stems, and retain um ; but mensis has both. 

4. Greek Nouns. — A few Greek nouns in is have the ace. 
im or in, voc. i, abl. i. 

Many in es have forms of the First or Second Declension : as, 
Achilles, gen. ei or i, dat. i, ace. en, ea, voc. e, abl. L 

Note. — Nouns such as urhs, pars, having the genitive plural ium 
and the accusative (occasionally) is, were originally vowel-stems. 

II. Liquid Stems. 

In nouns whose stem ends in a liquid (1, n, r), the nom- 
inative has no termination, but is the same as the stem, except 
when modified as follows : — 

a. Final n of the stem is dropped in masculines and feminines, 
except some Greek nouns : as, leon-is, leo ; legion-is, legio. 

h. Stems ending in dm-, gin- (mostly feminine) retain in the 
nominative an original o : as, virgo. Those in in- preceded by 
any other consonant retain an original e : as, carmen, inis, n. ; 
cornicen, inis, m. (Exceptions iv. 2, &.) 

c. Nouns whose stem ends in tr retain in the nominative an 
original e: as, pater (compare i. 2, 5.). 

d. In neuters whose stem ends in er, or, iir, the r was originally 
s, which is retained in the nominative, 6 of the stem being weak- 
ened into u: as, opiis, eris: corpus, oris. A few masc. and 
fem. stems also retain s. (Exceptions iv. 2, h.) 

e. Stems in 11, rr, lose one of these liquids in the nominative. 
/. The following have gen. plur. ium : glis, mas, ren, mus. 

Sing. Consul. Plur. Sixg. Name. Plur. 



Nom. 


consul 


consules 


nSmen 


nomina 


Gen. 


consulis 


consilium 


nominis 


nominum 


Dat. 


consuli 


consulibus 


nomini 


nominibus 


Ace. 


consulem 


consules 


nomen 


nomina 


Voc. 


consul 


consules 


nomen 


nomina 


Abl. 


consule 


consulibus 


nomine 


nominibus 



20 



THIRD DECLENSION. MUTE STEMS. [11,111. 



Sing. 

N. V. 

G. 

D. 

A. 

A. 

Plur. 

N. A. 

G. 

D. Ab 



Honor, ^. Lion^N. Father, m. Tree,F. Maiden, F. Work,in, 



h6n6r 

honoris 

honori 

honorem 

honore 



leo 

leonis 

leoni 

leonem 

leone 



pater 

patris 

patri 

patrem 

patre 



V. honores le5nes patres 

honorura leonum patrum 
. honoribus leonibus patribus 



arbor virgo opus 

arboris virginis operis 

arbori virgini operi 

arborem virginem opus 

arbore virtue opere 

arbdres virgines opera 

arborum virginum operum 
arboribus virginibus operibus 



III. Mute Stems. 

Masculine or feminine nouns whose stem ends in a Mute 
form the nominative by adding s. Neuters have for nomina- 
tive the simple stem. 

Note. — If the stem ends in two consonants, the genitive plural 
generally has ium (ii. 8, n.). Some of these, originally i-stems, 
have also, an old nominative in is : as, trabis, urbis, 

1, Labial. If the mute is a labial (b, p), s is simply 
added to the stem. 

a* Stems in ip- retain in the nominative an original e, the 
vowel having been weakened in the other eases : as, princeps, ipis. 

&. Most stems in cip- (m.) are compounds of the root cap (in 
capio) take: as, auceps (avi-ceps), bird-catcher. 

In these the stem sometimes has the form cup-, as auc^pis, 

c. The only noun whose stem ends in m is hiemps, winter, 
(For the insertion of p, see note, foot of p. 3.) 





SING. Cli 


iy, F. PLUR. 


SING. Chi 


ef. PLUR. 


l^om. 


urbs 


urbes 


princeps 


principes 


Gen. 


urbis 


urbium 


principis 


principum 


Dat. 


urbi 


urbibus 


principi 


principibus 


Ace. 


urbem 


urbes 


principem 


principes 


Voc. 


urbs 


urbes 


princeps 


principes 


Abl. 


urbe 


urbibus 


principe 


principibus 



2. Lingual. If the mute is a lingual (d, t), it is sup- 
pressed before s. 

a. Stems in it- (m. or r.) retain in the nominative an original 
e : as, hospes, itis. (In a few, as comes, the e is not original.) 

Note. — The only nominative in t is caput, Itis. 

b» Neuter stems ending in two consonants, and those ending 
in at- (Greek nouns), drop the final Ungual in the nominative : as, 
cor, cordis; poema, atis. 



11,111.] THIRD DECENSION. MUTE STEMS. 



21 



Nom. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Voe. 

Abl. 



SING. 

custos 

custodis 

custodi 

custodem 

custos 

custode 



Guard. plur. 
custodes 
custodum 
custodibus 
custodes 
custodes 
custodibus 



SING. Companion, plur. 
comes comites 



comitis 

comiti 

comitem 

comes 

comite 



comitum 

comitibus 

comites 

comites 

comitibus 



Age^ P. Heart, m. 

aetas cor 

setatis cordis 

setati cordi 

setatem cor 

estate (i) corde 



Family, p. Head, n. Poem, N. 

gens caput poema 

gentis capitis poematis 

genti capiti poemati 

lapidem gentem caput poema 

lapide gente capite poemate 



Stone, M. 
lapis 
lapidis 
lapidi 



Sing. 
N. V. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
A. 

Plur. 

N. A. V. estates corda lapides gentes capita poemata 
G. aetatum (ium) lapidum gentium capitum poematum 

D. Ab. setatibus cordibus lapidibus gentibus capitibus poematis 

(or ibus) 

c. Case-forms. Some nouns of lingual stems have forms 
of the vowel-declension. 

!• Participles used as nouns, and a few others originally i-stems, 
occasionally have the ablative in i : as, continenti, cetati, parti, sarti, 

2. Stems in tat- (originally i-stems), nt- (participles used as nouns), 
d or t preceded by a consonant, — also dis, lis, and pons, — regularly 
have the genitive plural ium. 

3. Names denoting birth or abode, with stems in at-, it- (originally 
adjectives), with penates, optimates, regularly have the gen. plur. ium. 

d, Greek neuters (as poema), with nom. sing, in a, frequently 
end the dat. and abl. plur. in is, and rarely the gen. in orum. 

3. JPalatal, If the mute is a palatal (c, g), it unites 
with s in the nominative, forming x. 

a. Stems in ic- (short i) have nom. in ex, and are chiefly mas- 
culine ; those in ic- (long i) retain i, and are feminine. 

6. In nix, nivis, snow, the nom. retains a palatal lost in the 
other cases (original stem snig-, compare ningit) ; supellex 
(-ectilis) is partly a lingual, partly an i-stem. 



SING. Peak, M. PLUR. 

Nom. apex apices 

Gen. apicis apicum 

Dat. apici apicibus 

Ace. apicem apices 

Voc. apex apices 

Abl. apice apicibus 



SING. Raven, f. plur. 

cornix cornices 

cornTcis cornTcum 

cornici cornTcibus 

cornTcem cornices 

cornix cornices 

cornice cornicibus 



22 



THIRD declension: MUTE STEMS. [H: HI. 



Sing. 


Peace., F. 


King^ M. 


N. 


pax 


rex 


G. 


pacis 


regis 


D. 


paci 


regi 


Ac. 


pacem 


regem 


Ab. 


pace 


rege 


Plur. 






N. A. V, 


. paces 


reges 


G. 




regnm 


D. Ab. 


pacibus 


regibus 



Light^ F. 
lux 
lucis 
luci 
lucem 
luce 



Fruit, F. 

[fruxl 

frugis 

frugi 

f'rugem 

fruge 



Citadel^ F. 

arx 

arcis 

arci 

arc em 

arce 



Throat. 



fauce 



fruges 

frugura 

frugibus 



luces 
lucibus 
A few monosyllables, as faux (def.), arx, 



arces 

arcium 

arcibus 



fauces 

faucium 

faucibus 



c. Case-forms, 

have gen. plur. ium ; in lux, an abl. luci occurs rarely 

4. Peculiar Forms. In many nouns the stem is vari- 
ously modified in the nominative. 

a* The vowel-stems gru-, su-, simply add s, retaining the 
original u ; grus has also a nom. griiis ; sus has in pi. subus. 

&. In bov- (bou-), the diphthong ou becomes o (bos, bovis) ; 
in nav- (uau-) an i is added (navis, is) ; in Jov-(=Zei;f) the diph- 
thong becomes u in Ju-piter (pater), gen. Jo vis, &c. 

c. In iter, itineris (n.), jecur, jecinoris (n.), the nom. has 
been formed from a shorter stem ; so that these words show a 
combination of two distinct forms. 

d. Of the many original s-stems, only vas, vasis (pi. vasa, 
orum) retains its proper declension. 

Note. — Of apparent s-stems, as (assis) is an i-stem ; of os, ossis, 
the original stem is osti- (cf. 6o-t€ov and Sanskrit asthi) ; while the 
others have either (1) passed into r-stems (changed from s) in most of 
the cases, as honor, oris, corpus, oris (see liquid stems) ; or (2) have 
broken down into i-stems, as moles (cf. molestus), nubes (Sanskrit 
nahhas), sedes (cf. ^8os), vis (vires) ^ &c. 



Sing. 


Ox, C. 


Snow. F. 


Old Man, 


M. Flesh, F. 


Bone, N. 


Force, F. 


N. 


bos 


nix 


senex 


caro 


5s 


vis 


G. 


b6vis 


invis 


senis 


carnis 


ossis 


vis 


D. 


b6vi 


nivi 


sent 


carni 


ossi 




A. 


bovem 


nivem 


senem 


came 


5s 


vim 


A. 


b6ve 


nive 


sene 


came 


esse 


VI 


Plur. 














N. A. 


V. bSves 


nives 


sgnes 


carnes 


ossa 


vires 


G. 


b6um 




senum 




ossium 


virium 


D. A. 


bobus 
(bubus) 


nivibus 


senibus 


carnibus 


ossibus 


viribus 



5. The Locative form for nouns of the Third declension ends, 
like the dative, in i; sometimes, like the ablative, in e: as, ruri, 
in the country ; Karthagini, at Carthage ; Tibiire (Hor.), at 
Tihur ; — plural in ibus: as, Trallibus, at Tralles. 

6. Greeh Nouns, Many nouns, originally Greek, — 
mostly proper names, — retain Greek forms of inflection. 

a. Stems in in- (i long) add s in the nominative, omitting n : 
as, delphis (but also delphin), Salamis. So Phorcys. 



11: III., IV.] THIRD declension: rules of GENDER. 23 

&. Most stems in id- (nom. is) often have also the forms of 
i-stems: as, tigris, idis (idos) or is; ace. idem (ida) or im; abl. 
ide or i But many, including most feminine proper names, have 
ace. idem (ida), abl. ide, — not im and i. These follow the 
forms in Greek, which depend on the place of the accent, 

c. Stems in on- sometimes retain n: as, Agamemnon (or 
Agamemno), onis, ace. ona. 

d* Stems in ont- form the nom. in on : as, horizon, Xeno- 
phon ; but a few are occasionally latinized into on- (nom. o) : as, 
Draco, onis. 

e. Stems in ant-, ent-, have nom. in as, is : as, adamas, 
antis ; Simois, entis. So a few in unt- (contr. from oent-) have 
us: as, Trapezus, untis. Occasionally the Latin form of nom- 
inative is also found : as, Atlans, elephans. 

/. Case- Forms, — Many Greek nouns (especially in the 
poets) have gen. os, ace. a; plur. nom. es, ace. as: as, aer, 
aether, crater, hero (ois), lampas (adis or ados), lynx (cis 
or c6s), nais (idos), Orpheus (eos). 

gr. A few in ys have ace. yn, voc. y ; abl. ye : as, chelys, 
yn, y ; Capys, yos, yn, y, ye. 

h. Several feminine names in o have gen. sing, us, all the 
other cases ending in 6 ; they may also have regular forms : as, 
Dido; gen. Didonis or Didus; dat. Didoni or Dido, &c. 

lY. Rules of Gender. 

1. The following are general Rules of Gender of nouns 

of the third declension, classed according to the termination 

of the nominative. 

Note. — Rules of gender are mostly only rules of memory, as 
there is no necessary connection between the form and gender. In 
fact, most nouns could originally be inflected in all genders. 

a. Masculine endings are o, or, os, er, es (idis, itis). 

h. Feminine endings are as (atis), es (is), is, ys, x, s (follow- 
ing a consonant) ; also, do, go, io (abstract and collective) , and 
us (udis, utis). 

c. Neuter endings are a, e, i, y ; c, 1, t ; men (minis) ; ar, 
ur, us (eris, oris). 

2. The following are general Rules of Gender of nouns 

of the third declension, classed according to their stems. 

Note. — See the Note above. But the preference of masc. and 
fem. (especially fern.) for long vowels cannot be accidental (compare 
long a of 1st declension). Some affixes also prefer one or another 
gender: as, tor (originally tar), masculine ; ti, feminine ; men (origi- 
nally man), neuter. 



24 THIRD declension: rules of gender. [U: IV. 

a. Vowel Stems. Stems in i, having s in the nominative, 
Bxe feminine, except those mentioned below (3, a). Those having 
nominative in e, or which drop the e, are neuter, 

h* Liquid Stems. Stems in 1 are masculine, except sil, 
fel, mel, and sometimes sal (n ). Those in min are neuter, ex- 
cept homo, nemo, flamen (m.). Others in in are masculine, 
except pollen, unguen (n.). Those in en are masculine, Tho,>e 
in din, gin, ion (abstract and collective) are feminine. Others 
in on, with cardo, margo, ordo, unio, senio, quaternio, are 
masculine. Those in r preceded by a short vowel are neuter, 
except nearly 80 given below. Those in r preceded by a long 
vowel are masculine, except soror, uxor, glos, tellus, f. ; cms, 
jus, pus, rus, tus (in which the long vowel is due to contraction), n. 

e. Labial Stefris (no neuters). Stems in b and m are 
feminine, except chalybs. Those in p are chiefly masculine 
(exceptions below). 

d. Lingual Stems. Stems in ad, ed, id, nd, ud, aud, are 
feminine, except dromas, pes, quadrupes, obses, praeses, 
lapis (m.). Those in at, ut, are feminine, except patrials (as 
Arpinas), with penates and optimates. Those in ed, et, are 
masculine, except merces and quies with its compounds. Those 
in et, it, are masculine, except abies, merges, seges, teges (f.), 
and those which are common from signification. Those in at are 
neuter ; those in nt various (see List) ; those in It, rt, feminine. 
(For a few isolated forms, see List.) 

* e. JPalatal Stems. Stems in c preceded by a consonant 
or long vowel sire feminine, except calx {sto7ie or heel), decunx, 
phoenix, storax, vervex, m. Those in c preceded by a short 
vowel are chiefly masculine (for exceptions, see List) ; those in g, 
masculine, except frux, lex, phalanx, syrinx (also nix, nivis). 

3. The following are the Forms of Inflection of nouns of 
the Third Declension, classed according to their Stems. 

a. Vowel-Stems. 

es, is: — about 35 nouns (original s-stems, list p. VJ), feminine, 
except t\i6.es, hammer ; vates, prophet ; veires, pig (^i,), 

is, is: — about 100 nouns, chie^y feminine. 

Exc. — sedilis, ec?//e ; am nis, n'yer; 2Lnguis, snake ; antes (pi.), 
ranks; assis, a coin ; axis, ox/e; caUis (c) , by-path ; canalis (c), 
canal; canis (c), dog; caulis, stalk; civis (c), citizen; clunis (c), 
haunch; coWis, hill ; crinis (c), haii^ ; ensis, sword; fascis, fagot ; 
finis (c), end; follis, bellows; funis (c), rope; fustis, club; hostis 
(c), enemt/ ; ignis, f re ; juvenis (c), youth ; lactes (pi.)) entrails; 
lavQS, gods ; ma.nes, departed spii'its ; mensis, month ; orhis, circle; 
panis, bread; piscis, fsh ; sentis (c), 6?w; testis (^c-), wittiess ; 
torris, brand; unguis, claw; vectis, bar; vepres (c, pl.)> bram- 
bles; vermis, worm (m.). 



11 : IV., 3-] THIRD DECLENSION I FORMS OP INFLECTION. 25 

e, is : — upwards of 20 nouns, all neuter. 

al, alls; ar, aris: — 16, neuter (see list, page 17; and for those 
in ar, aris, see Liquid Stems). 

er, ris : — imber, shower ; linter, boat ; uter, bag ; venter, stom- 
ach, — all M. except linter, which is commonly f. 
Peculiar: — grus, gruis, crane, f. ; rhus, rhois (ace. rhum), 

sumach, M,'^ sus, suis, hog, c. ; heros, h^r bis, hero, m. ; misy, 

yos, truffle, f. ; oxys, yos, sorrel, f. ; cinnibari, vei^milion ; 

gummi, gum; sinapi, mustard (mdeclj, N. 

b. Liquid ^^«i»«.^^ ' 

1, lis : — 9 nouns, masculine, except sil, ochre, and (sometimes) 

sal, salt, N. 
en, enis: — hymen, marriage; ren, kidney ; splen (enis), spleen, m. 

en, inis: — 10 nouns, M. except pollen, flour; unguen, oint- 
ment, N. 

men, minis (verbal): — about 30 nouns, neuter; but flamen, 
priest, M. 

on, onis (Greek) : — canon, rule ; d^mon, divinity ; gnomon, 
index, isi.\ — aedon, nightingale; alcyon, kingfisher; ancon, 
corner ; sindon,^?ie linen, f. 
o, onis : — nearly 60 nouns, all masculine. 

io, ionis (material objects, &c.) : — about 30 nouns, masculine, 
io, ionis (abstract and collective) : — upwards of bO, feminine, 
o, inis: — homo, man ; turbo, whirlwind, m. ; nemo, no one, c. 

do, dinis : — nearly 50 nouns, feminine excepting cardo, hinge ; 
ordo, rank, m. 

go, ginis : — about 30 nouns, feminine, 

ar, aris: — baccar, valerian; jubar, sunbeam; nectar, nectar, n. ; 
lar, household god ; salar, trout, m. 

er, ris: — accipiter, hawk; frater, brother; pater, father, M. ; 
mater, mother. 

er, eris (Greek) : — crater, cup ; halter, dumb-bell ; prester, water- 
spout, M. 

er, eris : — acipenser, hawk ; aer, air ; ^ther, ether ; anser, goose ; 
asser, stake ; aster, star ; cancer, crab ; career, dungeon ; 
later, brick ; passer, sparrow, m. ; — mulier, looman, r. ; — 
acer, maple ; cadaver, corpse ; cicer, vetch ; papaver, poppy ; 
piper, j^epper ; tuber, hump ; uber, udder ; verber, lash, n. 

is, eris: — cinis, ashes; cucumis, cucumber; pulvis, dust; vomis, 
ploughshare, m. 

6r (6s), oris: — nearly 70 nouns (besides many donotiu<r the age?H, 
formed upon verb-stems), all masculine, except soror, sister ; 
uxor, wife. 2 



26 THIRD declension: forms of inflection. [11: IV., 3. 

or, oris : — castor, heaver ; rhetor, rhetorician, m. ; — arbor, tree, 
F. ; — zdor, Jine-wheat ; aequor, level; marmor, marble, n. 

6s, oris: — fios, Jlower ; mos, custom ; ros, dew, m. ; — glos, sister- 
in-law, F. ; — os, mouth, n. 

iir, oris: — ebur, ivory; femur, thigh; jecur, liver; robur (or), 
strength, N. 

iir, iiris: — 9 masculine; with fulgur, thunderbolt; murmur, mur- 
mur; sulphur, brimstone, N. 
us, eris: — 13 neuter; also, Venus, F. 
us, oris : — 14 nouns, neuter, except lepus, hare, M. 

us, uris: — mus, mouse, m. ; — tellus, earth, f. ; — crus, leg ; jus, 
right; pus, fester ; rus, country ; tus, incense, n. 

Peculiar: — delphin, inis, dolphin; sanguis (en) inis, blood; 
senex, senis, old man, n. ; caro, Q2iYms, flesh, r. ; aes, aeris, cop- 
per; far, farris, corn ,• fel, fellis, gall; mel, mellis, honey; iter, 
itineris, journey; jecur, jecinoris (jecoris), liver, n. ; glis,-iris, 
dormouse, m. 

c» Labial, 

bs, bis : — chalybs, steel, m. ; — plebs, people ; scrobs, ditch ; 

trabs, beam ; urbs, city, f. (original i- stems). 
ms, mis: — hiemps, winter, f. 
ps, pis : — 15 nouns, masculine, except forceps, pincers ; merops, 

bee-eater; ops, help; stips, gift; stirps, stock, f. 

d. Lingual. 

as, adis (Greek) : — 14 nouns, feminine, except dromas, drome- 
dary ; vas, surety, m, 

es, edis : — cupes, epicure ; heres, heir ; praes, surety, m. ; — 
merces, pay, f. 

es, edis : — pes, foot ; quadrupes, quadruped, m. ; — compes, 
fetter, f. 

es, idis : — obses, hostage ; praeses, chief, c. 

is, idis : — nearly 40 nouns, mostly Greek, feminine, except lapis, 
stone, M. 

OS, odis : — custos, guardian, m. 

OS, Otis : — nepos, grandson, M. ; cos, whetstone ; dos, dowry, f. 
us, iidis: — incus, anvil; p2i\MS, marsh ; subscus, dovetail; with 
iv2iMS, fraud ; la.us, praise ; pecus, ud\s, sheep, f, 

a, atis (Greek) : — nearly 20 nouns, neuter, 

as, atis: — about 20 nouns (besides derivatives), feminine; also, 
anas, atis, duck. 

es, etis: — celes, race-horse; lebes, kettle; magnes, magnet, m. ; 
— quies, requies, rest ; inquies, unrest, f. 



11: IV., 3-] THIRD declension: forms of inflection. 27 

es, etis : — aries, ram ; interpres, interpreter ; paries, house-wall, 
M. ; — abies,^r; seges, crop ; teges, mat, f. 

es, itis : — about 20 nouns, masculine (or common from significa- 
tion) . 

us, utis: — juventus, youtJi; senectus, old age; servitus, slavery ; 

virtus, virtue, f. 
ns, ndis: — frons, leaf; glans, acorn; juglans, walnut, f. 
ns, ntis : — nearly 20 (besides many participial nouns) , common, 

except dens, tooth; fons, fountain; mens, mountain; pons, 

bridge, M. ; — frons, brow; gens, nation; lens, lentile; mens, 

mind, r. 

rs, rtis (originally i-stems) : — ars, art; cohors, cohort; fors, 

chance; mors, death; sors, lot, f. 
ys, ydis : — chelys, tortoise ; chlamys, cloak, F. 

Peculiar : — as, assis, penny, m. ; — lis, litis, lawsuit ; nox, 
noct'is, night; puis, pultis, ^o^^a^e, F. ; — caput, itis, 7ie«^/ ; cor, 
cordis, Jieart ; hepar, atis, liver ; os, ossis, bone ; vas, vasis, ves- 
sel, N. ; also, compounds of -pus, -podis (m.), Gr. for pes, foot. 

6. JPalatah 

ax, acis : — anthrax, coal ; corax, raven ; frax (pi.), dregs ; pan- 
ax, panacea ; scolopax, woodcock, m. ; — fax, torch ; styrax, 
a gum, F. 

ax, acis: — cnodd.x, pivot ; cordax, a dance ; thorax, breastplate, 
M. ; — pax, peace, f. 

ex, icis : — upwards of 40 nouns, masculine, except carex, 
sedge ; forfex, shears ; ilex, holm ; imbrex, tile ; nex (necis), 
violent death ; pellex, concubine, f. 

ix, icis : — about 30 nouns (also, larix, icis, larch), feminine ; 
besides many in trix, regular feminines of nouns in tor. 

ox, ocis: — celox, cidter, f. 

ux, ucis : — dux, leader, c. ; — crux, cross; nux, nut, f. 

ux, ucis: — balux, gold-dust; lux, light, F. 

X, cis : — arx, tower ; calx, lime ; falx, pruning-knife ; lynx, lynx ; 
merx (def.), loare, f. ; — calyx, cup ; calx, heel, M. 

X, gis: — conjux (nx), spouse; grex, herd; remex, rower; rex, 
king, m. or c. ; — frux {d^t), fruit; lex, law ; phalanx, pha- 
lanx, F., with a few rare names of animals. 

Other nouns in x are nix, nivis, snow; nox, noctis, night; su- 
pellex, ectilis, f. ; — onyx, ychis, onyx, m. 



28 



FOURTH DECLENSION. 



[12: 1,2,3. 



12. Fourth Declension. 

The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends 
in u. (Usually this is weakened to i before -bus}. 

1. Masculine and feminine nouns form the nominative by 

adding s ; neuters have for nominative the simple stem, but 

with u (long). 

Note. — The u in neuters is lengthened, probably on account of 
the loss of m. 





SING. Car (m, 


. ) PLUR. 


SING. Kiiee (n 


.) PLUR. 


Nom. 


currus 


currus 


genu 


genua 


Gen. 


currus (uis) 


curruum 


genu (us) 


genuum 


Dat. 


currui (u) 


curribus 


genu 


genibus 


Ace. 


currum 


currus 


genu 


genua 


Voc. 


currus 


currus 


genu 


genua 


Abl. 


curru 


curribus 


genu 


genibus 



Note. — The Genitive singular is contracted from the old form in 
uis. It is sometimes written with a circumflex : as, currus. 

2. Gender, — a. Most nouns in us are masculine. The 
following are feminine : — acus, needle ; anus, old woman ; colus, 
distaff; domus, house; idus (pl.)» ^^^ Ides; manus, hand; 
nurus, daughter-in-law ; porticus, gallery ; quinquatrus, feast 
of Minerva; socrus, mother-in-law; tribus, tribe; with a few 
names of plants and trees. Also, rarely, arcus, penus, specus. 

6. The only neuters are cornu, horn ; genu, knee ; pecu (def.), 
cattle ; veru, spit, (Some others are mentioned by grammarians, 
and the form ossua, as from ossu, occurs in inscriptions.) 

3. Case-Forms. — a. An original genitive in os is some- 
times found : as, senatuos ; and an old (but not original) geni- 
tive in i is used by some writers. 

b» The nominative plural has rarely the form uus. 

€• The genitive plural is sometimes contracted into um. 

d. The following retain the regular dative and ablative plural 
in ubus : artus, partus, portus, tribus, veru ; with dissyllables 
in -cus, as lacus. 

e. Domus, house, has also the following forms of the second 
declension: domi (locative, less frequently domu'i), at home; 
dative (rarely) domo ; ablative dom5 (rarely domu) ; plural gen. 
domorum (rarely domuum) ; accusative domos (or domus). 



13: I, 2.] FIFTH DECLENSION. 29 

/. Most names of plants, with colus, distaffs have also forms 
of the second declension. 

4* Most nouns of the fourth declension are formed from verb- 
stems, with the suffix -tus: as, cantus, song, from cano. 

a* The Supines of verbs are the accusative and ablative (or 
dative, perhaps both) of these nouns. 

}}• Many have only the genitive, or the genitive and ablative : 
as, jussu (meo), hy my command ; so injussu (populi), without 
the people's order. Some only the dative, memoratui, divisui. 

c. The remaining nouns of this declension are the following : — 

sestus, heat; arcus, how; ^rtus, joint ; ccetus, meeting; fetus, pro- 
duce ; ficus, Jig ; gradus, step; incestus, incest; lacus, lake; laurus, 
laurel; myrtus, myrtle; penus (det) , provision ; pinus, pine; portus, 
port; rictus, gape; senatus, senate; sinus, fold, bay; situs, dust; 
specus, den; tonitrus, thunder; tumultus, tumult. 

Note. — Several of these are formed upon verb-stems not in use, 
or obsolete. 



13. Fifth Declension. 

The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends 
in e, which appears in all the cases. 

1. The nominative is formed from the stem by adding S. 





SING. Thing {f.)tl.\jr. 


siXG. Day (m.) plur. 


Faith (f.) 


Nom. 


res 


res 


dies 


dies 


fides 


Gen. 


rei 


rerum 


diei (die) 


dierum 


fidei 


Dat. 


rei 


rebus 


diei (die) 


diebus 


fidei 


Ace. 


rem 


res 


diem 


dies 


fidem 


Voc. 


res 


res 


dies 


dies 


fides 


Abl. 


re 


rebus 


die 


diebus 


fide 



Note. — The e is shortened in the genitive and dative singular, 
when not preceded by i ; viz., in Jides, plehes, spes, res. 

2. Gender* All nouns of this declension are feminine, 
except dies arid meridies, m. 

Note. — Dies is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in 
phrases indicating a fixed time, or time in general : as, longa dies, 
a long time ; constituta die, on the set day ; also in the poets: pulcra 
dies, a fair day. 



30 ' IRREGULAR NOUNS. [13, 14: I. 

3, Case^Forms. The genitive singular anciently ended in 
es (cf. as of first declension) ; and ei was sometimes contracted 
into i or e, as in the phrase plebi-scitum, people's decree (Fr. 
plebiscite'). An old dative in i or e also occurs. 

4, Several nouns of the fifth declension have also forms of the 
first, of which this is only a variety : as, materia, -ies, timber ; 
saevitia, -ies, cruelty. 

Note. — Nouns in ies (except dies) are original a-stems. The 
others are probably (excepting res) corrupted s-s terns, like moles ^ 
moles-tus ; dies, diurnus ; spes, spero. Requies (etis) has also forms of 
this declension ; with others, as saties (for satietas), &c. 

5, The Locative form of this declension is represented by -e, 
as in hodie, to-day ; perendie, day-afteT-to-morrow ; die quarti, 
the fourth day, 

6, Of about forty nouns of this declension, the only ones com- 
plete in all their parts are dies and res. Most want the plural, 
which is, however, found in the nominative, accusative, and voca- 
tive, in the following: acies, effigies, eluvies, facies, glacies, 
progenies, series, species, spes. 



14. Irregular Nouns. 

1. Defective* Many nouns are defective in their forms 
of declension, either from signification or by accident of use. 

a» Some are found only in the singular (singularia tantum), 
chiefly abstract nouns: as, pietas, piety; names of materials and 
things weighed or measured (not counted) : as, aes, copper, far, 
coin ; and proper names, as Cicero. 

Abstract nouns in the plural may denote repetitions or instances, 
as paces: — names of things measured, &c., ki7ids or samples, as 
Vina, wines, aera, brazen utensils ; proper names, two or more of 
the same, as Scipiones. So Galliae, the two Gauls, Castores, 
Castor and Pollux, nives, snowflakes, soles, days, Joves, images 
of Jupiter, palatia, the buildings on the hill. 

h. Some are found only in the Plural (pluralia tantum) : these 
include (1) many proper names, including those of Festivals and 
Games ; (2) names of classes : as, majores, ancestors ; liberi, 
children ; penates, household gods ; (3) the following from sig- 
nification : arma, weapons ; artus, joints ; divitiae, riches ; excu- 
biae, night-guard ; insidiae, ambush ; manes, departed spirits ; 
minae, threats ; moenia, fortifications, and a few others, which 
are very rare. 



14: I, 2.] IRREGULAR NOUNS. * 31 

e. The following are defective in Case : — 

amhage, § F. ; astus (s. and p.), astu, m. ; cassem, e, § M. ; dapis, i, enife, § 
F. ; dicairiy as, f. ;• dicioniSy t, em, <i, § f. ; fauces § f. ; foras, is (pl.)> F. ; 
Jbrs, forte, f. ; frugis, 2, em, e, § f. ; 9Z05, F. ; gratice, as, is, f. ; impetus, 
urn, u, M. ; infitias, F. ; jugera, um, ibuSy n. ; /m6s, em, e, F. ; ?wane (nom., 
ace, and abl.), n. ; nauci, n. ; oftice, § c. ; opts, em, e, § f. ; />ottc?o (abl. or 
indec), n. ; precem, e, § f. ; sentis, em, es, ibus, m. ; sordem, e, § f. ; spontis, 
e, f. ; suppetias, f. ; venul, um, m. (o, n. ) ; vicis, em, e, es, ibus, f. The 
gen. plur. is also wanting in cor, cos,jfax,f(Ex, lux, nex, os (oris), pax, prces, 
ros, sal, sol, tus, vas, ver; jura, rura, have only nom. and ace. plur. 

§ Plural complete. 

Many nouns of the fourth declension occur only in the dative, or 
in the ace. and abl. (supines). 

The following neuters are indechnable : fas, nefas, instar, necesse, 
nihil, opus, secus. 

Nouns found only in one case are called monoptotes; in two cases, 
diptotes ; in three cases, triptotes. 

2. Variable* Many nouns vary in their form of deden- 
sion, their gender, or their signification under different forms. 

a* Some have two or more forms of Declension, and are called 

heteroclites : as, 

Balnea or ce ; carbasus (f.), pi., a (n.); colus (1st and 4th), f.; femur, 
oris or inis; jugerum, i, or abl. e, pi. a, um, n. ; margarita, ce, (f.), or 
um, i (n.) ; Mulciber, bri or beris ; munus, eris, pi. munia (moenia), orum; 
pubes, en's ; em, e ; penus, i, or oris ; scevitia, oi ; -ies, iei ; -itudo, inis, f. ; 
sequester, tri, or tris ; with many found in the 1st and 5th declensions, 
and a few other rare forms. 

6. Some nouns vary in Gender (heterogeneous) : as, 

caelum (n.), pi. caeli (m.), sky; clipeus (m.), or clipeum (n.), 
shield; frenum (31.), pi. freni (m.), rein, 

c. Many nouns vary in meaning as thev are found in the 
singular or plural : as, 

sedes, is (f.), temple; sedes, ium, house. 

auxilium (n.), hdp ; auxilia, auxiliaries. 

career (m.), dungeon; carceres, batriers (of a race-course). 

castrum (m.),/??-^; castra, camp. 

copia. (f.), plenti/ ; copi^ J troops. 

finis (m.), end ; fines, bounds, territories, 

forum, market-place ; fori, gang-ways. 

gratia (f.), favor ; gratiae, thanks. 

impedimentum (n.), hinderance ; impedimenta, baggage. 

litter a (f.), letter (of alphabet) ; litterse, epistle. 

locus (m.), place [pi. loca (n.)] ; loci, passages in books, (In early 

writers this is the regular plural.) 
ludus, sport ; ludi, public games. 
opera, task; operae, day-laborers ("hands"). 



32 PROPER NAMES. [14, 15. 

opis (f. gen.), help; opes, resources^ tvealth. 
plaga (f.), region [plaga, blow\\ plagge, snares. 
rostrum, beak of a ship ; rostra, speaker's platform, 
sal (m. or N.), salt ; sales, witticisms. 
tabella, ia6/et; tabeWvei documents. 

sestertius (m.) means the sum of 24 asses, = about 4 cents. 
sestertium (n.) means the sum of 1000 sestertii, = about $40. 
decies sestertium means the sum of 1000 sestertia, = $40,000. 

d. Sometimes a noun in combination with an adjective takes a' 
special signification, both parts being regularly inflected : as, jus- 
jurandum, jurisjurandi, oath; respublica, reipublicae, com- 
monwealtlu 

15. Proper Names. 

1. A Roman had regularly three names. Thus, in the 
name Marcus Tullius Gicero^ we have — 

Marcus, the prcenomenf or personal name ; 

Tullius, the no7nen; i.e., name of the Gens, or house, whose 
original head was Tullus ; this name is properly an adjective ; 

Cicero, the cognomen^ or family name, often in its origin 
a nickname, — in this case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea. 

2. A fourth or fifth name, called the agnomen 9 was 

sometimes given. 

Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Puhlius 
Cornelius Scipio Africanus jEmiUanus ; Africanus from his ex- 
ploits in Africa ; Ji^milianus as adopted from the ^milian gens. 

3. Women had no personal names, but were known only 
by that of their gens. 

Thus the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. 
A younger sister would have been called Tullia secunda or minor, 
and so on. 

4. The commonest praenomens are thus abbreviated : — 

A. Aulus. L. Lucius. Q. Quintus. 

C. (G.) Gains {Caius). M. Marcus. Ser. Servius. 
Cn. (Gn.) Gngeus (Cneius). M\ Manius. Sex. Sextus. 

D. Decimus. Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius. 
K. KsBso. N. Nunierius. T. Titus. 
»App. Appius. P. Fublius. Ti. Tiberius. 



16: I.] 



ADJECTIVES : INFLECTION, 



83 



ADJECTIVES. 



« 16. Inflection of Adjectives. 

Adjectives and Participles are in general formed 
and declined like Nouns, differing from nouns only in 
their use. In accordance with their use, they distin- 
guish gender by different forms in the same word. 
They are (1) of the first and second declensions^ or 
(2) of the third declension. 

Note. — Latin adjectives and participles are either o-stems with 
the corresponding feminine a-stems (originally a and a), or i-stems. 
Many, however, were originally stems in u or a consonant, which 
passed over, in all or most of their cases, into the i-declension, for 
which Latin had a special fondness. (Compare the endings es and 
fe of the Third declension with Greek €s and ds; navis (nom.) with 
the Greek vavs ; animus with exanimis ; cornu with hicornis ; lingua 
with hilinguis ; cor, corde, cat^da, with discors, -di, -dia, -dium ; sudvis 
with f|8vs; ferens, -entia, with 4>€p(«>v, -ovra.) A few, which in other 
languages are nouns, retain the consonant-form : as, vetus = <iros, 
uber = o{»0ap. Comparatives also retain the consonant form in most 
of their cases. 

1. Stems in have the feminine a (originally a). They 
are declined like servus (m.), stella (f.), donum (n.) : as, 







M. 


F. 


N. 


Sing. 


Nom. 


carus 


cara 


carum, Bear, 




Gen. 


cari 


carae 


cari 




Dat. 


caro 


carae 


caro 




Ace. 


carum 


caram 


carum 




Voc. 


care 


cara 


carum 




Abl. 


caro 


cara 


caro 


Plur. 


Nom. 


cari 


carae 


cara 




Gen. 


carorum 


cararum 


carorum 




Dat. 


caris 


caris 


caris 




Ace. 


caros 


caras 


cara 




Voc. 


cari 


carae 


cara 




Abl. 


caris 


caris 


caris 



Note — The masc. gen. of adjectives in ius ends in ii, and the 
vocative in ie ; not in i as in nouns. 

2* 



34 



ADJECTIVES : INFLECTION, 



[16: I. 



misen 

misero 

miserum 

miserum 

misero 



Ater, black. 

ater atra atrum 

atri atrse atri 

atro atrsB atro 

atruin atram atrum 

ater atra atrum. 

atro atra atro 

atri atrse atra 

atrorum atrarum atrorum 

atris atris atris 

atros atras atra 

atri atrae atra 

atris atris atris 



a* In adjectives of stems ending in ro- preceded by e or a 
consonant (also satur), the masculine nominative is formed like 
puer or liber (§ lOj : as, 

Sing. Miser, wretched. 

N. miser misera miserum 

G. miseri miserse 

D. m^isero miseraa 

Ac. m.iserum. m.iseram 

V. miser misera 

Ab misero misera 

Plur, 

N. miseri miserae misera 

G. miserorum m.iserarum miserorum 

D. miseris m.iseris miseris 

Ac. miseros m.iseras misera 

V. miseri miserse misera 

Ab. m.iseris miseris m.iseris 

Stems in ero, with morigerus, properus, posterus, have the 
re<rular nominative in us. 

Like miser are declined — asper, rough; gibber, hunched; lacer, 
torn; liber, //ee; prosper (eras), ^awrm^; satur (ura, urum), sa^ec?; 
tener, tender ; with compounds of -fer and -ger ; also, usually, dexter, 
right. In these the e belongs to the stem ; but in dexter it is often 
syncopated. 

Like ater are declined — seger, sick; creber, close; faber, skilled; 
glaber, sleek; integer, whole; ludicer, sportive; macer, lean; niger, 
dark; noster, our; piger, sluggish; ruber, red ; sacer, sacred; sinis- 
ter, left; teter J foul; vafer, shrewd; v ester, your. 

The following feminines lack a masculine singular nominative : — 
cetera, infera, postera, snpera. They are rarely found in the singular 
except in certain phrases : as, postero die. A feminine ablative in o 
is found in a few Greek adjectives, as lectlcd octophoro ( Yerr. v. 11.). 

h* The following (o-stems) with their compounds have the 
genitive singular in ius and the dative in i in all the genders : — 

alius (n. aliud), other, nuUus, none. uUus, an?/ (with negatives). 

alter, other (of two). solus, alone, unus, one. 

neuter, -trius, TieiY^er. totn^j whole. uter,-trius,t(?HcA(oftwo). 

Note. — The suffix ter, in alter, uter, neuter, is the same as the 
Greek comparative suffix -T€po(s). The stem of aliud appears in early 
Latin and in derivatives as ali-, in the forms alis, alid (for aliud), 
aliter, &c. 

Of these the singular is thus declined : — 





M. 


F. 


N. 


N. 


solus 


sola 


solum 


G. 


solius 


solius 


solius 


D. 


soli 


soli 


soli 


A. 


solum 


solam 


solum 


A. 


solo 


sola 


solo 


N. 


alius 


alia 


aliud 


G. 


alius 


alius 


alius 


D. 


alii 


alii 


alii 


A. 


alium 


aliam 


aliud 


A. 


alio 


alia 


alio 



M. 


F. 


N. 


uter 


utra 


utrum 


utrius 


utrius 


utrius 


utri 


utri 


utri 


utrum 


utram 


utrum 


utro 


utra 


utro 


alter 


altera 


alterum 


alterius 


alterius 


alterius 


alteri 


alteri 


alteri 


alterum 


alteram 


alterum 


altero 


altera 


altero 



16: 2.] 



adjectives: inflection. 



35 



Note. — These words, in Greek and Sanskrit, are treated as pro- 
nouns ; which accords with the pronominal forms of the genitive in 
ius, the dative in i, and the neuter d in aliud. Tiie i in the geni- 
tive -ius, though long, may be made short in verse ; and alterius is 
generally accented on the antepenult. Instead of alius (gen.), alte- 
rius is more commonly used. In compounds — as alteruter — some- 
times both parts are decUned, sometimes only the latter. 

2. Stems in i — distinguished by being parisyllahic — 
have properly no form for the feminine, and hence are called 
adjectives of two terminations. In the neuter, i is changed 
to e. They are declined like turris (ace. em) and mare. 



Sing, 


M., F. Light. N. 


N.V. 


levis 


leve 


G. 


levis 


levis 


D. 


levi 


levi 


Ac. 


levem 


leve 


Ab. 


levi 


levi 


Plur, 






N.V. 


leves 


levia 


G. 


levium 


levium 


D. 


levibus 


levibus 


Ac. 


leves (is) 


levia 


Ab. 


levibus 


levibus 



M. K 


een. f. 


N. 


acer 


acris 


acre 


acris 


acris 


acris 


acri 


acri 


acri 


acrem 


acrem 


acre 


acri 


acri 


acri 



acres acres acna 
acrium acrium acrium 
acribus acribus acribus 
acres (is) acres (is) acria 
acribus acribus acribus 



a. Several stems in ri- form the masc. nom. in er (as acer, 
compare § 11, i. 2, 6.) . These are the following : — 



acer, keen, 
alacer, eager, 
campester, of the plain. 
celeber, famous. 
equester, of horsemen. 
paluster, marshy. 



pedester, on foot, 
puter, rotten, 
saliiber, wholesome, 
Silvester, wooded. 
terrester, of the land, 
volucer, winged. 



Also celer, celeris, celere, swift; and, in certain phrases, the 
names of months in -ber. 

Note. — This formation is not original ; and hence, in the poets, 
and in early Latin, either the masculine or feminine form of these 
adjectives was used for both genders. In others, as illustris, lugubris, 
medidcris, muliebrisy there is no separate -masculine form. 

6. Case~Forins^ These adjectives, as true i-stems, retain 
i in the abl. singular, the neut. plural ia, the gen. plur. ium, and 
often in the ace. plur. is, but never im in the ace. sing. For metri- 
cal reasons, an abl. in e sometimes occurs in poetry. When celer 
is used as an adjective, it has the regular gen. plur. in ium ; as a 
noun, denoting a military rank, it is celerum ; as a proper name, 
it has the abl. in e. 



36 



ADJECTIVES : INFLECTION. 



[16:3. 



S, The remaining adjectives of the third declension have 
the form of i-stems in the ablative singular i, the plural 
neuter ia, and genitive ium. In other cases they follow 
the rule of consonant-stems. 

a» In adjectives of consonant-stems (except comparatives) the 
nominative singular is alike for all genders : hence they are called 
adjectives of one termination. Except of stems in 1 and r, it is 
formed from the stem by adding s : as, 



Sing. 


M. F. Happy. N. « 


M. F. Calling, n. 


N.V. 


felix 


felix 


vocans 


vocans 


Gen. 


felicis 


felicis 


vocantis 


vocantis 


Dat. 


felTci 


felici 


vocanti 


vocanti 


Ace. 


felicem 


fehx 


vocantem 


vocans 


Abl. 


fehce or 


felici 


vocante or 


vocanti 


Plur. 










N.y. 


felloes 


felicia 


vocantes 


vocantia 


Gen. 


felTcium 


felicium 


vocantium 


vocantium 


Dat. 


felTcibus 


felicibus 


vocantibus 


vocantibus 


Ace. 


felices (is) 


felicia 


vocantes (is) 


vocantia 


Abl. 


felicibus 


felicibus 


vocantibus 


vocantibus 


Other examples are the following : 






Sing. 


M. F. N. 


M. p. N. 


M. p. 


N. 


N.V. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 


iens, going 
euntis 
eunti 
euntem iens 
eunte (i) 


par, equal 
paris 
pari 
parem par 
pari 


prseceps, headlong 
prsecipitis 
prsecipiti 
prsecipitem prseceps 
preecipite 


Plur. 










N.A.V. 

Gen. 

D.Ab. 


euntes euntia 
euntium 
euntibus 


pares paria 
parium 
paribus 


prsecipites prsBcipitia 
prsecipitiiiTTi 
prsecipitibus 


Sing. 


M. p. N. 


M. p. W. 


M. p. 


N. 


N.V. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 


dives, rich 
divitis 
diviti 
divitem dives 
divite (i) 


Mh&Vy fertile 
uberis 
uberi 
uberem uber 
ubere (i) 


vetus, old 
veteris 
veteri 
veterem vetus 
vetere (i) 


Plur. 










N.A.V. 
Gen 
D Ab. 


divites (ditia) 
divitum 
divitibus 


uberes ubera 
uberum 
uberibus 


vetere s vetgra 
veterum 
veteribus 



Note. — The regular feminine of these adjectives, by analogy of 
cognate languages, would end in ia : this form is found in the abstracts 
amentia, desidia, socordia, Sfc, and in proper names, as F/orentia 
(cf. Greek <j)6pov<ra). The neuter would regularly have the simple 
stem (as caput, cor, allec, Greek <J>€pov) ; but in all except liquid 
stems, the masc. form in s has forced itself not only upon the neuter 
nominative, but upon the accusative also, where it is wholly abnormal. 



16: 3.] 



ADJECTIVES : INFLECTION. 



37 



A few of these forms, used as nouns, have a feminine in a : as, 
dienta, hospita, inhospita, with the appellation Juno Sospita. 

h. The stem of Comparatives properly ended in 6s, which 
became or in all cases except the neuter singular (n. a. v.), where 
s is retained, and 6 is changed to u (compare honor, oris ; cor- 
pus, oris). Thus they appear to have two terminations. 



Sing. 

N.V. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Abl. 

Plur. 

N.Y. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Abl. 


M. F. Dearer, f. 
carior carius 
carioris carioris 
cariori cariori 
cariorem carius 
cariore or cariori 

cariores cariora 
cariorum cariorum 
carioribus carioribus 
cariores cariora 
carioribus carioribus 


M. F. More. N. 
plus 




pluri 

plus 

plure 

pliira (ia) 

plurium 

pluribus 

plura 

pluribus 




• 

plures 

plurium 

pluribus 

plures 

pluribus 



Note. — The neuter sing, plus is used only as a noun. Its deriva- 
tive complures, several^ has sometimes neut. plur. compluria. All 
other comparatives are declined like carior. 

c. Case Forfiis, 1. The ablative singular of these adjec- 
tives commonly ends in i ; but, when used as nouns, — as super- 
stes, survivor f — they have e. Participles in ns used as such y — 
especially in the Ablative Absolute, — or as nouns, regularly have 
e ; but as adjectives, regularly i. (So adjectives in ns as in the 
phrase, me imprudente.) 

In the following, e is the regular form : — cceles, compos, deses, dives, 
hospes, pauper, particeps, prcBceps, princeps, supei'stes, supple x ; also in 
patrials (see § 44), with stems in at-, it-, nt-, rt-, when used as 
nouns, and sometimes as adjectives. 

2. The genitive plural ends commonly in ium, and the accusa- 
tive often in is, even in comparatives, which are less inclined to 
the i-declension. 

In the following, the gen. plur. ends in um : — always in dives, 
compos, inops, prcepes, supplex, and compounds of pes ; — sometimes, in 
poetry, participles in ns. In vetus (eris), pubes (eris), uher (eris), which 
did not become i-stems, the forms e, a, um, are regular ; but uher and 
vetus rarely have the abl. in i. 

3. Several are declined in more than one form : as, graoflis (us), 
hilaris (us), inermis (us). A few are indecl. or defective : as, 

damnas (esto, sunto), frugi (dat. of advantage), exspes (only nom.), ear/ea:- 
(nom. and ace), mactus (nom. and voc), nequam (indecl.), pernox (per-, 
noctu), potis, pote (indecl. or m. f. potis, i<(. pote), prijnoris, semineci, &c. 



38 adjectives: comparison. [17: i. 

dt Many adjectives, from their signification, are used only in 
the masculine or feminine, and may be called adjectives of common 
gender. Such are adolescens, youthful; deses, idis, slothful; 
inops, opis, poor ; sospes, itis, safe. So senex and juvenis 
may be called masculine adjectives, 

e. Many nouns may be also used as adjectives (compare § 47, 
3) : as, pedes, a footman or on foot ; especially nouns in tor (m.) 
and trix (f.), denoting the agent: as, victor exercitus, the con- 
quering army ; victrix causa, the winning cause, 

/. Certain cases of adjectives are regularly used as Adverbs. 
These are, the ace. and abl. of the neuter singular : as, multum, 
multo, 7nuch ; — the neuter of comparatives (regularly) : as, 
carius, more dearly ; levius, more lightly ; — together with those 
ending in e for o-stems, and ter for i-stems : as, care, dearly ; 
leviter, lightly ; acerrime, 7nost eagerly. 



17. Comparison. 

1. Hegular Comparison. The Comparative is formed 

by adding, for the nominative, ior (old stem ios), neuter ius, 

and the Superlative by adding issimus, a, um (old iss- 

umus), to the stem of the Positive, which loses its final 

vowel: as, 

carus, dear; carior, dearer ; carissimus, dearest, 

levis, light ; levior, lighter ; levissimus, lightest, 

felix, happy ; felicior, happier ; felicissimus, happiest, 

hebes, dull ; hebetior, duller ; hebetissimus, dullest. 

Note. — The comparative suffix is the same as the Greek iwv, or 
the Sanskrit lyans. That of the superlative (issimus) is a double 
form, but what is the combination is not certain ; perhaps it stands for 
ios-timusL (comp. and sup.), or possibly for ist-tiiuus (two superla- 
tives). Strictly, new stems are thus formed. 

a. Adjectives in er form the superlative by adding -rimus to 
the nominative (comparative regular) : as, 

miser, miserior, miserrimus ; acer, acrior, acerrimus. 

So vetus, veterrimus (for comparative, vetustior) from the old 
form veter ; and, rarely, maturrimus (for maturissimus). 

h. The following in lis add -limus to the stem clipped of its 
vowel: facilis, easy; diflacilis, hard; sirailis, like; dissimilis, 
unlike ; gracilis, slender ; humilis, loic. 

Note. — The endings -limus and -rimius, the regular superlatives, 
are formed by assimilation from -timus and -simus. 



17: I, 2.] adjectives: comparison. 39 

c* Compounds in -dicus (saying), -ficus (doing), -volus 
(willing), take the forms of corresponding participles in ns, 
which were anciently used as adjectives : as, 

maledicus, slanderous, maledicentior, maledicentissimus. 
malevolus, spiteful, malevolentior, malevolentissimus. 

d. Adjectives in us preceded by a vowel (except u) rarely 
have forms of comparison, but are compared by the adverbs 
magis, more ; maxime, most : as, 

idoneus, Jit ; magis idoneus, maxime idoneus. 

Most derivatives in -icus, -idus, -alls, -aris, -ills, -iilus, -undus, 
-timus, -inus, -ivus, -orus, with compounds, as degeuer, inops, 

are also thus compared. 

e. Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared : 
as, patientior, patientissimus ; apertior, aperlissimus. 

Note. — Many adjectives — as aureus, golden — are from their 
meaning incapable of comparison ; but each language has its own 
usage in this respect. Thus niger, black, and candidus, white, are 
compared ; but not ater or albus, meaning absolute black or white. 

2. Irregular Comparison* Several adjectives are 

compared from different stems, or contain irregular forms : as, 

bonus, melior, optimus, good, better, best. 
malus, pejor, pessimus, bad, worse, worst. 
magnus, major, maximus, great, greater, greatest. 
parvus, minor, minimus, small, less, least, 
multum, plus (n.), plurimum, much, more, most. 
multi, plures, plurimi, many, more, most. 
nequam (indecl.), nequior, nequissimus, worthless, 
frugi (indecl.), frugalior, frugalissimus, useful, worthy. 
dexter, dexterior, dextimus, on the right, handy. 

3, Defective Comparison. The following are formed 
from roots or stems not used as adjectives : — 

[cis, citra] citerior, citimus, hither, hithermost. 
[in, intra] interior, intimus, inner, inmost. 
[prae, pro] prior, ^^rimvis, former , first. 
[prope] propior, proximus, nearer, next. 
[ultra] ulterior, MliivciMS,^ farther, farthest. 

a. Of the following the positive forms (originally comparative) 
are rare, except when used as nouns, generally in the plural : — 

[exterus] exterior, extremus (extimus), outer, outmost. 

[inferus] inferior, infimus (imus), lower, lowest. 

[posterus] posterior, postremus, latter, last. ' 

[superus] superior, supremus or summus, higher, highest. 
The plurals, exteri, foreigners ; posteri, posterity ; superi, the 
heavenly gods ; inferi, those below, are common. 



40 adjectives: comparison. [17:4,5. 

b» From juvenis, youth, senex, old man^ are formed the com- 
paratives junior, younger, senior, older. Instead of the superla- 
tive, the phrase minimus or maximus natu is used (natu 
being often understood) : as, 

maximus fratrum, the eldest of the brothers ; but, 
senior fratrum, the elder of the [two] brothers. 

€• In the following, one of the forms of comparison is want- 
ing : — 

1. The Positive is wanting in deterior, deterrimus, worsen 
worst; ocior, ocissimus, swifter, swiftest; potior, potissimus, 
more and most preferable [from potis, able']. 

2. The Comparative is wanting in bellus, j9re% ; caesius, gray ; 
falsus, false ; inclutus (or inclitus), famous ; invictus, unsur- 
passed ; invituSj reluctant ; novus, new (novissimum agmen, rear 
guard) '^ plus ^ pious ; S2icer, sacred; VQtus, old; and most deriva- 
tives in ilis and bilis. 

3. The Superlative is not found in actuosus, energetic; alacer, 
eager; arcanus, secret ; diuturnus, long-continued; exilis, slender; 
ingens, huge ; jejunus, sterile ; longinquus, distant ; opimus, 
7^ich ; proclivis, inclined ; satur, sated ; segnis, sluggish ; serus, 
late; sup'mus, supine ; taciturnus, 5i76?i^; tempest! vus, seasow- 
able; vicinus, neighboring. 

4. Adverbs. Adverbs formed from adjectives are com- 
pared in like manner : as, 

earns, dear ; care, carius, carissime. 

miser, wretched ; misere (iter), miserius, miserrime. 

levis, light ; leviter, levius, levissime. 

audax, bold; audacter, audacius, audacissime. 

b6nus, good; bene, melius, optime. 

malus, bad; male, pejus, pessime. 
Also, diu, long (in time), diutius diutissime ; — potius, rather, 
pot\ss\mum, frst-of-all ; — saepe, often, saepius ; — satis, enough, 
satius, preferable ; -— secus, otherwise, secius, worse ; — multum 
(multo), magis, maxime, much, more, most. 

5. Signification, Besides their regular signification, the 
forms of comparison are used as follows : — 

a. The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree 
of a quality : as, brevior, rather short; audacior, too bold. It 
is used instead of the superlative where only two are spoken of: 
as, melior imperatorum, the best of the (two) commanders. 

b. The Superlative (of eminence) denotes a very high degree of 
aquahty: as, maximus numerus, a very great number. With 
quam, it indicates the highest degree : as, quam plurimi, as 
many as possible; quam maxime potest (quam potest), as 
much as can be. 



17: 5. 18] 



NUMERALS. 



41 



c. With quisque, the superlative has a peculiar signification : 
thus the phrase ditissimus quisque means, all the richest; 
primus quisque, all thejirst (each in his order). 

d» A high degree of a quality is denoted by such adverbs as 
admodum, valde, very; or by per or prae in composition: as, 
permagnus, very great ; praealtus, very high (or deep). 

e. A low degree is indicated by sub in composition : as, sub- 
rusticus, rather countrified; or by minus, not very; minime, 
not at all; parum, not enough ; non satis, not much. 



18. Numerals. 



!• Cardinal and Ordinal. Cardinal Numbers answer 
to the interrogative quot, how many ; Ordinal Numbers to 
quotus, which in order, or one of how many. 



CARDINAL. 


ORDINAL. ROMA3T NUMERALS. 


I. unus, una, unum, one. 


primus, a, um, first. 


I. 


2. duo, duae, duo, two. 


secundus (alter), second. 11. 


3. tres, tria, three, dr^c. 


tertius, third, dr^c. 


III. 


4. quattuor 


quartus 


IV. 


5. quinque 


quintus 


V. 


6. sex 


sextus 


VI. 


7. septem 


Septimus 


VII. 


8. octo 


octavus 


VIII. 


9. novem 


nonus 


IX. 


10. decem 


decimus 


X. 


II. undecim 


undecimus 


XI. 


12. duodecim 


duodecimus 


XII. 


13. tredecim 


tertius decimus 


XIII. 


14. quattuordecim 


quartus decimus 


XIV. 


15. quindecim 


quintus decimus 


XV. 


16. sedecim 


sextus decimus 


XVI. 


17. septendecim 


Septimus decimus 


XVII. 


18. duodeviginti(octodecim) 


duodevicesimus 


XVIII. 


19. undeviginti (novendecim) 


undevicesimus 


XIX. 


20. viginti 


vicesimus (vigesimus) 


XX. 


21. viginti unus or unus et viginti 


vicesimus primus, &c. 


XXI. 


30. triginta 


tricesimus 


XXX. 


40. quadraginta 


quadragesimus 


XL. 


50. quinquaginta 


quinquagesimus 


i. or L. 


60. sexaginta 


sexagesimus 


LX. 


70. septuaginta 


septuagesimus 


LXX. 


80. octoginta 


octogesimus 


LXXX. 


90. nonaginta 


nonagesimus 


xc. 


00. centum 


centesimus 


c. 



42 



NUMERALS. 



[18: I. 



CARDINAL. 

200. ducenti, ae, a 

300. trecenti 

400. quadringenti 

500. quingenti 

600. sexcenti 

700. septingenti 

800. octingenti 

900. nongenti 
1000. mille 

5000. quinque millia (milia) 
10,000. decern millia (milia) 
100,000. centum millia (milia) 



ORDINAL. 

ducentesimus 

trecentesimus 

quadr i nge nte simus 

quingentesimus 

sexcentesimus 

septingentesimus 

octingentesimus 

nongentesimus 



EOMAN NUMERALS. 

cc. 

ccc. 

cccc. 

ID, or D. 

DC. 

DCC. 

DCCC. 

DCCCC. 

millesimus cid, or m. 

quinquies millesimus 133. 
decies millesimus ccido. 

centies millesimus ccciddd. 



Note. — The Ordinals (except secundusy tertiuSj octavus) are formed 
by means of the same suffixes as superlatives. Thus decimus (com- 
pare the form infimus) may be regarded as the last of a series of ten ; 
primus is a superlative of pio ; the forms in -tus {quartus, quintus, sex- 
tus) may be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in -tos 
and irpaJros, superlative of irpo ; nonus is contracted from novimus ; 
while the others have the regular superlative ending -simus. Of the 
exceptions, secMndus is a participle of sequor ; and alter is a comparative 
form (compare -rcpos in Greek). 

a, Unus, una, unum, one, is declined like solus (§ 16, i.), 
gen. unius and dat. uni in all genders. It often has the mean- 
ing of same, or only. It is used in the plural in this sense, as also 
to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning : as, una castra, 
one camp. So uni et alteri, one party and the other, 

b» Duo, two (also ambo, both) , is thus declined : — 



Nom. 


duo 


duae 


duo 


Gen. 


duorum 


duarum 


duorum 


Dat. 


duobus 


duabus 


duobus 


Ace. 


duos (duo) 


duas 


duo 


Abl. 


duobus 


duabus 


duobus 



Note. — This form in -o is a remnant of the dual number, which 
was lost in Latin, but is found in cognate languages. 

c. Tres, tria, thi^ee^ is an i-stem, and is regularly declined like 
the plural of levis. The other cardinal numbers, up to centum 
(100), are indeclinable. The multiples of ten are compounds of 
the multiple, with a fragment -of decem: as, viginti = dui-ginta. 

Note. — The forms octodecim (18), novendecim (19), are rare, U7ide- 
viginti, duodevigintij &c., being commonly employed. 

d. The hundreds, up to 1000, and all the ordinals, are o-stems, 
and are regularly declined like adjectives of the first and second 
declension. 



18: 2,3,40 



NUMERALS. 



43 



d. Mille, a thousand, is not declined when used as an adjec- 
tive. Often in the singular, and always in the plural (milia or 
millia, thousands), it is used as a neuter noun, joined with a geni- 
tive plural: as, cum mille hominibus (or, mille hominum), 
with IQOO men; but, cum duobus milibus hominum (or, in 
poetry, cum bis mille hominibus), with 2000 men, 

2. Distributives. Distributive Numerals answer to the 
interrogative quoteni, how many of a sort. 



I. 


smgu\\,onebyo?ie. I2. 


duodeni 


200. 


duceni 


2. 


bini, tivo-and-tvjo. 13. 


terni deni, &c. 


300. 


treceni 


3- 


terni, trini 20. 


viceni 


400. 


quadringeni 


4- 


quaterni 30. 


triceni 


500. 


quingeni 


5- 


quini 40. 


quadrageni 


600. 


sesceni 


6. 


seni 50. 


quinquageni 


700. 


septingeni 


7- 


septeni 60. 


sexageni 


800 


octingeni 


8. 


octoni 70. 


septuageni 


900. 


nongeni 


9- 


noveni 80. 


octogeni 


1000. 


milleni 


lO. 


deni 90. 


nonageni 


2000. 


bis milleni 


II. 


undeni 100. 


centeni 


10,000. 


decies milleni 



Distributives are used as follows : — 

a. In the meaning of so many apiece or on each side: as, 
dat singula singulis, he gives them one apiece, 

h. Instead of Cardinals, when the noun is plural in form but 
singular in meaning: as, bina castra, two camps (duo castra 
would mean two forts). 

c. In multiplication : as, bis bina, twice two ; quater septe- 
nis diebus, i.e., in four weeks, 

d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where 
pairs or sets Sire spoken of : as, bina hastilia, two shafts (each 
person usually carrying two) . 

3. Numeral Adverbs, The numeral adverbs answer to 
the interrogative quotiens (quo ties), hoio often. Those of 
the higher numbers, including five, have the termination iens 
(ies) added to the stem of Cardinals. 



I. 


semel, once. 


10. 


decies 


60. 


sexagies 


2. 


bis, twice. 


II. 


undecies 


70. 


septuagies 


3- 


ter, thrice. 


12. 


duodecies 


80. 


octogies 


4- 


quater 


13- 


ter et decies, &c. 


90. 


nonagies 


5- 


quinquies (ens) 


20. 


vicies 


100. 


centies 


6. 


sexies 


21. 


semel et vicies 


200. 


ducenties 


7. 


septies 


30- 


tricies 


300. 


ter centies 


8. 


octies 


40. 


quadragies 


1000. 


milies 


9- 


nonies 


50- 


quinquagies 


10,000. 


decies milies 



4. The adjectives simplex (icis), single; duplex, double; 
triplex, triple; quadruplex, quintuplex, multiplex, &c., are 
called multiplicatives . They are compounds of plico (as in Eng- 
lish two fold) ; and are inflected as adjectives of one termination. 



44 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. [19 : I, 2, 3. 

PRONOUNS. 



19. Personal and Reflexive. 

1. The Personal Pronouns of the Jirst person are ego, I, 
nos, we ; of the second person^ tu, thou, VOS, ye or you. 

First Person. Second Person. 

Nom. ego, / nos, we tu, thou vos, ye or you 

Gen. mei, of me nostrum (tri), q/*M5 tui vestrum (tri) 

Dat. mihi, to me nobis, to us tibi vobis 

Ace. me, me nos, us te vos 

Voc. tu vos 

Abl. me, by me nobis, by us te vobis 

These pronouns are also used reflexively : as, ipse te nimium 
laudas, you praise yourself too much, 

2. The pronouns of the third person •— he, she, it, they — 
are wanting in Latin, a demonstration being sometimes used 
instead. 

3. The Reflexive pronoun of the third person (used only 
in the oblique cases) is the same in the singular and plural : as, 

Gen. sui, of himself, herself themselves. 



Dat. 


sibi, to 


>» 


»» 


>> 


Ace. 


se 


>> 


»> 


>» 


Abl. 


se, with 


»» 


>> 


>> 



Note. — There is an old form of genitive in is : as, mis, tis, sis ; 
also an accusative and ablative med, ted, sed. 

a. From these pronouns are formed the Possessive Adjectives 
meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester (voster), dechned as in § 16, i. 

6. The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are the contracted geni- 
tive plural of the possessives noster, vester. (So in early and 
late Latin we find una vestrarum.) 

c. The genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are the geni- 
tive singular of the neuter possessives, meum, &c., meaning my, 
your, our interest or concern, 

d. The reciprocal {each other) is expressed by inter se or 
alter — alterum : as, inter se amant, they love each other, 

e. The preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the 
ablative of the pronouns : as, tecum sedet, he sits with you. 



20 : I, 2.] 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 



45 



/!, To the personal (and sometimes to the adjective) pronouns 
enclitics are joined for emphasis : — met to all the pronouns ; -te 
to tu ; -pte to the abl. sing, of the adjectives, and in early Latin 
to the others : as, vosmetipsos proditis, you betray your own 
very selves ; suopte pondere, hy its own weight, 

20. Demonstrative. 



1. The Demonstrative Pronouns are hie, this; is, ille, 

iste, that ; with the Intensive ipse, self, and idem, same. 

Note. — These are combinations of o and i-stems, which are not 
clearly distinguishable. Hie is a compound of the stem ho- with 
the demonstrative -ce, which appears in full in early Latin (hice), 
and when followed by the enchtic -ne (hicine). In most of the cases 
it is shortened to c, and in many lost ; but it is appended for empha- 
sis to those that do not regularly retain it (hujusce). In early Latin 
c alone is retained in some of these (horunc). Ille and iste are 
sometimes found with the same enclitic (illic, istue). 

a* Ille is a later form of oUus (die), which is sometimes used 
by the poets ; a gen. sing, in i, ae, i, occurs in ille and iste. 

6. Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste, &c., 
with the entire loss of the first syllable ; and the i of ipse and 
ille is very often found shortened, 

€• Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (for pte, from the same 
root as potis), meaning self. The first part was originally de- 
chned, as in reapse (for re eapse), in fact. An old form ipsus 
occurs. Idem is the demonstrative is with the affix -dem. 

2. These demonstratives are used either with nouns as 
Adjectives, or alone as Pronouns ; and, from their significa- 
tion, cannot (except ipse) have a vocative. 

This. That. 



Sing. 


M. 


F. 


N. 


"Norn. 


hie 


hae6 


hoc 


Gen. 


hujus 


hujus 


huju 


Dat. 


huic 


huic 


huic 


Ace* 


hunc 


hanc 


hoc 


Abl. 


hoc 


hac 


hoc 



Flur. These. 

Nom. hi hae haec 

Gen. horum harum horum 

Dat. his his his 

Ace. hos^ has haec 

Abl. his his his 



M. 


F. 


N. 


is 


ea 


id 


ejus 


ejus 


ejus 


ei 


ei 


ei 


eum 


earn 


id 


eo 


ea 


eo 


Those. 




a (ei) 


eae 


ea 


eorum 


earum 
eis or iis 


eorum 


eos 


eas 
eis or iis 


ea 



46 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 



[20 



Thai. 



Sing. m. 


p. 


N. 


N. me 


iUa 


mud 


G. illTus 


iUius 


illius. 


D. illi 


illi 


im 


A. ilium 


illam 


mud 


V. 






A. iUo 


iUa 


iUo 


Plur. 


Those. 




N. illi 


iUsB 


iUa 


G. illorum 


illarum 


illorum 


D. illis 


mis 


mis 


A. illos 


illas 


ma 


V. 






A. illis 


illis 


mis 



The Same, 

Sing. 

N. idem eadem idem. 
G. ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem 





Self. 




M. 


F. 


N. 


ipse 


ipsa 


ipsum 


ipsius 


ipsius 


ipsius 


ipsi 


ipsi 


ipsi 


ipsum 


ipsam 


ipsum 


ipse 


ipsa 


ipsum 


ipso 


ipso 


ipso 



Selves. 

ipsi ipsee ipsa 

ipsorum. ipsarum ipsorum 

ipsis ipsis ipsis 

ipsos ipsas ipsa 

ipsi ipsae ipsa 

ipsis ipsis ipsis 



D. eidemi eidem eidem. 
A. eundem eandem idem 
A. eodem eadem. eodemi 



Plur. 

iidem esedem. eadem 

eorundem. earundem eorundem. 

eisdem or iisdem. 
eosdem easdem eadem 

eisdem. or iisdem 



a* Hie is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, 
tliouglit, or on the written page) ; hence called the demonstrative 
of the first person. It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; 
sometimes for " the latter" of two things mentioned. 

&. Ille is used of what is remote (in time, &c.) ; hence called 
the demonstrative of the third person. It is sometimes used to 
mean ** the former" ; also (usually following its noun) of what is 
famous or well-known ; often (especially the neuter illud) to mean 
'* the following." 

c, Iste is used of what is hetioeen the two others in remoteness ; 
often of the person addressed, — hence called the demonstrative of 
the second per so Ji ; especially of one's opponent, frequently imply- 
ing contempt. 

d* Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others, not denoting 
any special object, but referring to one just mentioned, or to be 
explained by a relative. It is used oftener than the others as a 
personal pronoun ; and is often merely a correlative to the relative 
qui: as, eum quern, one whom; eum consulem qui non du- 
bitet (Cic), a consul who will not hesitate, 

e. Ipse, may be used with a personal pronoun, as nos ipsi 
(nosmetipsi) , we ourselves ; or independently (the verb contain- 
ing the pronoun), as, ipsi adestis, you are yourselves present ; or 
with a noun, as ipsi fontes (Yirg.), the very fountains. 

Note. — In English, the pronouns himself, &c., are used both inten- 
sively (as, he wilt come himself), or reflexively (as, he will kill himself) : 
in Latin the former would be translated ipse ; the latter se, or sese. 



21: I, 2.] RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE. 47 



21. Kelative, Interrogative, and Indefinite. 

1. The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite pronouns 

are the same ; viz., qui, quis {whoj who ? any)^ with their 

compounds and derivatives. 

Note. — The stem has two forms, quo- and qui-. From the latter 
are formed quis, quid, quern, quihus, qui (abl.), while qui, quae, are prob- 
ably lengthened forms of quo, qua, made by the addition of the 
demonstrative particle i. 

Sing, M. F. N. • 

Nom. qui, quis quae quod, quid 

Gen. cujus cujus cujus 

Dat. cui (quoi) cui cui 

Ace. quein quam quod 

Abl. quo (qui) qua quo 

Plur. 

Nom. qui quae ^ quae (qua) 

Gen. quorum quarum quorum 

Dat. quibus or quis (queis) 

Ace. quos quas quae (qua) 

Abl. quibus or quis (queis) 

Case Forms, a. The Relative has always qui and quod 
in the nom. sing. The Interrogative and Indefinite have quis, 
quid substantive, and qui, quod adjective. But quis and qui are 
sometimes used for each other. 

ft. Old forms for the gen. and dat. are quoius, quoi. A loca- 
tive cui occurs only in the form cuicuimodi, of whatever sort. 

€0 The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and all 
genders ; but especially as an adverb (how, by ivhich way, in any 
way), and in the combination quicum, as interrogative or in- 
definite relative. 

d, A nom. plur. ques (stem qui-) is found in early Latin. 
The dat. and abl. quis (stem quo-) is old, but not infrequent. 

e. The preposition cum. is joined enclitically to all forms of the 
ablative, as with the personal pronouns. 

2. The stems quo and qui are variously compounded. 

a. The suffix -cunque (-cumque) added to the relative makes 
an Indefinite-relative, which is declined as the simple word: as, 

quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever. 

Note. — This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with 
any relative: as, qualiscunque, of whatever sort; quandocuuque 
(quaudoque); whenever; ubicunque, wherever. 



48 RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE. [21: 2. 

&• The interrogative form doubled also makes an indefinite- 
relative : as, quisquis, whoever (so utut, however^ ubiubi, wher- 
ever). Of quisquis both parts are declined, but the feminine is 
wanting : as, 

Norn. quisquis (quiqui) quidquid (quicquid) 
Gen. cujuscujus 

Dat. cuicui 

Ace. quemquem quidquid (quicquid) 

Abl. quoquo 

Plur. Nom. quiqui Dat., Abl. quibusquibus 

This compound is rare, except in the forms quisquis, quicquid, 
and quoquo. The case-form quamquam is used as a conjunc- 
tion, although (lit. however), Quiqui is an early form. 

c. Indefinite Compounds are the following: quispiam, any; 
quisquam, any-at-all ; quivis, quilibet, any-you-please ; quidam, 
a, a certain. Of these the first part is inflected like quis, qui, 
with quid or quod in the neuter. 

Note. — The form -quam is fi-om the stem quo-, perhaps -piam 
also; but if so it must be dialectic (compare Oscan pam for quam). 
In quivis, quilibet, the second part is a verb (vis, you wish ; libet, 
it pleases). They have the accusative case-forms quamvis, quamli- 

bet (however, although), used as adverbs or conjunctions. 

d. In aliquis, any, siquis, if any, nequis, lest any, ecquis, 
numquis, whether any, the second part is declined like quis, but 
having qua for quae, except in the nom. plur. feminine. Si quis, 
ne quis, num quis, are better written separately. The simple 
form quis is rare except in these combinations ; and the com- 
pounds quispiam, aliquis (si quis, if any one; si aliquis, if 
some one), are often used in these, being rather more emphatic. 

Note. — Aliquis is compounded with ali-, old stem of alius, but 
with weakened meaning. Ecquis is compounded with en. 

e* The enclitic -que added to the indefinite gives a Universal : 
as, quisque, ever^y one ; ubique, everywhere (so uterque, either of 
two, or both). Of quisque the first part is declined. In the 
compound unusquisque, both parts are declined, and sometimes 
separated by other words. 

/. The relative and interrogative have a possessive adjective 
cujus (stem cujo-), whose; and a patrial cujas (stem cujat-), 
of what country, 

g. Quantus, how great, qualis, of what sort, are derivative 
adjectives from the same stem, and are used as interrogative 
or relative, corresponding to the demonstratives tantus, talis. 
Quam, how, is an accusative of the same stem, corresponding to 
the case-form tam, so, 

h, Quisquam, with ullus, any, unquam, ever, usquam, any- 
where, are chiefly used in negative, interrogative, or conditional 
sentences, or after quam, than ; sine, without ; vix, scarcely. 



22.] 



CORRELATIYES. 



49 



22. Correlatives. 



Many adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs are found in several 
corresponding forms, as, demonstrative^ relative^ interrogative^ 
and indefinite. These are called Correlatives. Their 
forniis are seen in the following Table : — 



DEMONSTR. 


RELAT. 


LNTERROG. 


IXDEF. REL. 


IXDEF. 


is, that 

tantus, so great 
talis, sueh 
ibi, there 


qui 

quantus 
quahs 
ubi 


quis ? 
quantus ? 
qualis ? 
ubi? 


quisquis 

* 
ubiubi 


aliquis 
aliquantus 

alicubi 


eo, thither 
ea, that way 
inde, thence 


quo 
qua 
unde 


quo ? 
qua ? 
unde ? 


quoquo 

quaqua 

* 


aliquo 
aliqua 
alicunde 


turn, then 
tot, so many 
toties, so often 


quum, cum 

quot 

quoties 


quando ? 
quot ? 
quoties ? 


* 

quotquot 

* 


aliquando 

aliquot 

aliquoties 



* Compounds with -cuinque. 

a. The forms tot, quot, aliquot, totidem (originally toti), 
are indeclinable, and may take any gender, number, or case : as, 

per tot annos, tot proeliis, tot imperatores (Cic), so many 
commanders, for so many years, in so many battles. 

h. The correlative of the second member is often to be ren- 
dered simply as: thus, 

tantum argenti quantum aeris, as much silver as copper. 

C, A frequent form of correlative is found in the ablatives quo 
or quanto, hy how much ; eo or tanto, by so much, used with 
comparatives (rendered in English the . . the) : as, 

quo magis conatur, eo minus discit, the more he tries the less 
he learns. 

d. Certain adverbs and conjunctions are often used correla- 
tively ; as, 

et . . . et, both . . . and. 
ut . . . ita (sic) , as {while) . . . 
aut (vel) . . . aut (vel), either 
sive (seu) . . . sive, whether . 
tam . . . quam, so (as) . . . as. 
cum (tum) . . . tum, both . . . 
idem . . . qui, the same . . . as. 

Note. — For the reciprocal use of alius and alter, see Syntax 
(§ 47, 9). 

3 



so {yet). 
,. . or. 

. . or. 

and ; not only . . . but also. 



60 VERBS : STRUCTURE. [23 : I, 

VERBS. 



23. Structure. 

1. The forms of a Latin verb are the following : — 

a* Voices : Active and Passive. 

h* Moods : Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, Infinitive. 

c. Participles : Active, Present and Future. 

Passive, Perfect and Gerundive. 

d. Verbal Nouns : Gerund and Supine. 

e» Tenses : Present, Imperfect, Future ; Perfect, Pluperfect, 
Future-Perfect. 

/. There are also separate terminations of inflection for each 
of the three Persons, Singular and Plural (§ 28). 

Note. — The Infinitives, Participles, Gerund, and Supine are not 
strictly parts of the verb, as having no personal terminations, but 
having the form and (in general) the construction of nouns. They 
were, however, regarded and used as verbal forms by the Romans. 

2. Special forms for the following tenses are wanting in 
certain parts of the verb : — 

U. In the Subjunctive mood, \hQ future 2iTi({ future-perfect. 

Note. — These are wanting, because the original meaning and 
most of the uses of this mood are future. In some cases, the future 
participle with the corresponding tense of esse is used. 

h. In the Passive voice, ih^ perfect, pluperfect, 2ir\dL future-per- 
fect, which are supplied by corresponding tenses of esse, to he, 
with the Perfect Participle. 

c. In the Imperative mood only two tenses are found, — present 
and future. In the Infinitive only the present, perfect, and future. 

3. The Active and Passive voices are equivalent to the 

corresponding English forms, except that the tenses of the 

passive are used with more exactness. Thus VOcatur means, 

he is [being] called^ i.e., some one is now calling him ; voca- 

tus est, he is called, i.e., the action is now over. 

Note. — The passive voice often has a reflexive meaning, as, indui- 
tur vestem, he puts on his clothes ; and many verbs are active in mean- 
ing though passive in form. (See § 35, *' Deponents.'') 



24, 25.] moods participles. 51 

24. Moods. 

1. The Indicative is used for direct assertion or interroga- 
tion. 

2. The Subjunctive is used chiefly in commands, condi- 
tions, and dependent clauses. 

Note. ■— The Latin Subjunctive is usually translated, in grammars, 
by the English potential forms, may, might, could, ivoidd, &c., to distin- 
guish it from the Indicative, because the English has no subjunctive 
m general use. But the subjunctive is used in many cases where we 
use the indicative ; and we use the potential in many cases Avhere the 
Latin employs a separate verb. Thus 1 may write (except when it 
follow^s ut, in order that) is not scribam (subj!), but licet mihi scri- 
bere ; / ca7i ivrite is possum scribere ; / zvould write is scribam, 
scriberem, or scribere velim (vellem) ; I should write, if, Sfc., scri- 
berem si ... or (implying duty) oportet me scribere. A few ex- 
amples of the use of the subjunctive may be seen in the following : — 

eamus, let us go. ne cunctemur, let us not linger. 

quid merer, why should I delay ? 

si tardier sim iratus sit, if 1 should he too late he would he angry, 

adsum ut videam, I am here to see [that I may see]. 

imperat ut scribam, he orders me to write. 

nescio quid scribam, 1 know not what to write. 

licet eas, you may go ; cave cadas, don't fall. 

vereor ne eat, Ifear he will go (vereer ut, 1 fear he will not), 

sunt qui putent, there are some who think. 

si ita esset nen manerem, if it were so 1 lubuld not stay. 

quae cum dixisset abiit, ichen he had said this he went away. 

3. The Imperative is used for exhortation or command ; 
but its place is often supplied by the Subjunctive. 

4. The Infinitive is used as an indeclinable noun, as the 
subject or object of another verb ; but often takes the place 
of one of the other moods. 

Note. — For the Syntax of the Moods, see § 57. 

25. Participles. 

1 . The Present participle has the same meaning as the 
English participle in -ing : as, VOCans, calling ; regentes, 
those ruling, (For its inflection, see § 16, 2.) 

2. The Future participle is rarely used, except with tenses 
of esse, to he (see § 40), or to express purpose : as, urbs 
est casura, the city is about to fall; venit auditurus, he came 
to hear. 



52 GERUND AND SUPINE TENSES. [26, 27. 

3. The Perfect participle is used to form certain tenses 
of the passive, and often has simply an adjective meaning: 
as, vocatus est, he was {has been) called; tectus, sheltered ; 
acceptus, acceptable. 

Note. — There is no perfect active or present passive participle in 
Latin. The perfect participle of deponents, however, is generally 
used in an active sense, as secutus, having followed. In other cases 
some different construction is used : as, cum venisset, having come 
(when he had come) ; equitatu praemisso, having sent forward the cav- 
alry (the cavalry having been sent forward) ; dum verberatur, while 
being struck (= ruirrojisvos). 

tor the Syntax of these participles, see § 72. 

4* Th€ Gerundive (sometimes called the future passive 
participle) has, with tenses of esse, the meaning ought or 
must (see § 40) : as, audiendus est, he must he heard. But, 
in the oblique cases, it is oftener to be translated as if it were 
an active participle, and governed the word it agrees with ; as, 
ad petendam pacem, to seek peace (§ 73). 

26: Gerund and Supine. 

1. The Gerund is the neuter singular of the Gerundive. 
It is a verbal noun, corresponding to the English participial 
noun in 4ng : as, loquendi causa, for the sake of speaking. 

2. The Supines are the accusative and ablative (or dative) 
of a verbal noun of the fourth declension (§ 12, 4, a). They 
are generally translated by the English Infinitive of purpose : 
as, venit spectatum, he came to see; mirabile dictu, wonder- 
ful to tell. 

Note. — The Supine in turn is the regular Infinitive in Sanskrit. 

27. Tenses. 

1. The tenses of a Latin verb are of two classes: (1) 
those denoting iricomplete action, the Present, Imperfect, and 
Future ; (2) those denoting completed action, the Perfect, 
Pluperfect, and Future- Perfect. 

Those of the former class, together with the Perfect, are 
also used to denote indefinite action. 



27 : 2, 3, 4, 5-] TENSES. 53 

2. The Present, Future, Pluperfect, and Future-Perfect 
have the same meaning as the corresponding tenses in Eng- 
lish, but are distinguished more accurately in their use : as, 

diu aegroto, I have long been [and still am] sick. 

cum venero scribam, when I come [shall have come] I will write, 

3. The Perfect and Imperfect are both used to denote 
past time, the former usually to tell a simple fact ; the latter, 
a continued action, or a condition of things. The Imperfect 
is variously rendered in English : as, 

dicebat, he said, he was saying, or he used to say ; saepe dicebat, 
he would often say ; dictitabat, he kept saying. 

The Perfect has two separate uses, distinguished as definite and 
historical, corresponding to the English perfect (compound) 
and preterite (imperfect) : as, 
vocavit, he has called (definite), or he called (historical). 

Note. — In Latin, and in the languages derived from Latin (as 
Itahan and French), there are two past tenses, — the Perfect or Pret- 
erite (aorist), which merely states that the fact took place ; and the Im- 
perfect, which is used for description, or to indicate that the action was 
in progress. In the Northern languages (Germanic or Gothic, includ- 
ing English), the same tense serves for both : as, 

longius prosequi vetuit, quod loci naturam ignorabat, he forbade 
to follow farther, because he was ignorant of the nature of the ground 
(B. G. V. 9.). 

4. The tenses of completed action are supplied in the Pas- 
sive voice by adding the corresponding tenses of incomplete 
action of esse to the Perfect Participle : as, oceisus est, he 
was slain, or, he has been slain. 

5. The tenses of a Latin verb are formed upon three dif- 
ferent stems, called the present, the perfect, and the supine 
stems. 

a. The tenses o^ incomplete action, both active and passive, are 
formed upon the Present stem. 

h. The tenses of completed action in the active voice are formed 
upon the Perfect stem. 

c. The perfect participle, which is used in the tenses of 
completed action in the passive voice, is formed upon the Supine 
stem. 



54 verb forms. [28 : i, 2. 

28. Verb Forms. 

1. JPersonal endings. Verbs have terminations for 
each of the three persons, both singular and plural, active and 
passive. These terminations are fragments of old pronouns, 
whose signification is thus added to that of the verb-stem. 



ACTI 


VE. 


Passive. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL, 


1. m 


mus 


r 


mur 


2. s 


tis 


ris 


mini 


3. t 


nt 


tur 


ntur 



a. The present and perfect indicative have lost the m, and end 
in the modified stem-vowels o and i Except sum, / am, and 
inquam, / say, 

b. The second person of the perfect indicative has for the sin- 
gular sti, and for the plural stis. The third person plural has an 
ending of verbal origin, erunt. 

€• The Imperative has special terminations : 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

Sing, 2. [lost] Plur, 2. te, tote Sing. 2. re Plur, 2. mini 
3. to 3. nto 3. tor 3. ntor 

Note. — The Passive is a pecuHar Latin middle (or reflexive) 
form, made by adding se to the forms of the active voice, with some 
abrasion of their endings (the original form of se, sva, was not 
hmited to the third person). Thus amoj^ = amo-se, amaris = amasise, 
amatur = amatise. The above view seems the most probable, in spite 
of some objections. The ending mini in the second person plural 
of the passive is a remnant of the participial form found in the Greek 

-fJL€VOS. 

All Latin words ending in t, except a few in ot, ut, with et, at, 
sat, are third persons of verbs ; all in nt are third persons plural. 
In dumtaxat, however, licet, although, and the indefinite pronouns in 
-libet, the meanings of the verbs are disguised. 

2. Changes of Stem. These terminations appear in all 
the tenses of the verb ; but the Stem in many parts is variously 
modified to receive them, sometimes by changes in its form, 
and sometimes by additions at the end. 

d. The Present indicative and subjunctive, the Imperative, 
and sometimes the Future, add the personal endings directly to 
the present stem, with or without change of vowel : as, do, das, 
dat (stem da-) ; vocem (stem voca-) . 



28 : 2, 30 VERB-FORMS. 55 

h. The Perfect indicative also sometimes adds them directly ; 
but to another form of the root called the perfect stem: as, dedi, 
dedisti, dedit. 

Note. — The i of the Perfect, which in early Latin is always long 
(ei, i, e) except before mas, is of doubtful origin. It is treated for 
convenience as part of the stem, as it is in dedi, steti, where it takes 
the place of the vowel a. In the suffixes vi (= fui) and si (= Skr. 
asa), and in the perfects of consonant-roots, it seems to be, but prob- 
ably is not, a mere connecting vowel. The s before ti and tis is 
also anomalous. Most scholars regard it as a remnant of es ; but it 
may be, hke the others, of pronominal origin. 

c. All other true verbal forms are compounded with a suffix — 
originally a verb — which contains the personal endings : as, 
vocav-eram, vocav-ero, voca-bo. The first person of the 
Perfect, thus compounded, produces another form of perfect stem : 
as, voca-vL 

d. The Present Infinitive Active, Present Participle, and 
Grerundive, add nominal (noun or adjective) suffixes to the. present 
stem: as, vocare, vocans (antis), vocandus. 

e. The Perfect infinitive adds an infinitive (esse) abeady 
formed to the perfect stem : as, vocayisse (= vocavi-esse). 

/. The Perfect and Future Participles and the Supine are 
formed upon what is called a supine stem, which adds t- either to 
the Present stem or to the Root: as, vocat-, tect- (root teg-). 

Note. — Strictly, these have no common stem, but are formed 
with special suffixes (to-, turo-, tu-). As, however, the form to 
which they are added is the same for each, and as the suffixes all 
begin with t, it is convenient to give the name supine stem to the form 
in t. The participle in to- corresponds to the Greek verbal -tos ; that 
in turo- is a development of the noun of agencij ending in -tor (as 
victor, victurus) ; that in tu- is an abstract noun of the fourth 
declension (§ 12, 4, a). 

g. The Present Infinitive Passive is an anomalous form, made 
by adding -ri or i to the present stem: as, voce, vocari; tego, 
tegi (When i is added, the final vowel of the stem disappears.) 
It was anciently followed by -er. 

h. The Future Infinitive Passive is supplied by the supine in 
turn with the infinitive passive of eo, to go, used impersonally : as, 
vocatum iri, to he about to he called. 

Note. — The construction of this infinitive is different from the 
others, the form in turn being invariable, and the apparent subject 
accusative being really the object of the supine taken actively. Few 
verbs in fact have this form, for which fore ut with the subjunctive 
is often found. 

3. Verb-Endings. The scheme of Verb-Endings, as 
they are formed by suffixes or personal endings, is as fol- 
lows : — 



56 



VERB-FORMS. 



[28: 3. 



a. Verbal Forms* 

ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 

Present. 



NDICATIVE. 


SUBJITNCTIVI 


:. 


Indicative. 


Subjunctive. 


[0] 


m (vowel-change) 


[or] 


r (vowel-change) 


S 


s 




ris or re 


ris or re 


t 


t 




tur 


tur 


mus 


mus 




mur 


mur 


tis 


tis 




mini 


mini 


nt 


nt 




ntur 


ntur 






Imperfect. 




bam 


rem 




bar 


rer 


bas 


res 




baris(re) 


reris(re) 


bat 


ret 




batur 


retur 


bamus 


remus 




bamur 


remur 


batis 


retis 




bamini 


remini 


bant 


rent 




bantur 


rentur 



EUTURE. 

bo, or om (vowel-change) bor, or ar (vowel-change) 
bis es beris(re) eris (re) 



bit 


€t 




bitur etur 




bimus 


emus 




bimur emur 




bitis 


ctis 




bimini emmi 




bunt 


ent 




bnntur cntur 
Perfect. 




i 

isti 

it 




erim 

eris 

erit 


(-sum 

tus (ta 3 


Sim 

sis 

sit 


imus 




erimus 


I . ■< estis 
*^> (sunt 


simus 


istis 




erltis 


sitis 


erunt 




erint 


sint 


or ere 




Pluperfect. 




eram 
eras 




issem 
isses 


*"^)Lrat 


essem 
esses 


erat 




isset 


esset 


eramus 


issemus 


' tiCtae.j"''!^^ 

ta) r^"^ 

^ K erant 


essemus 


eratis 




issetis 


essetis 


erant 




issent 


essent 



29: J.] 



ESSE AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 



57 



Sro 

eris 

erit 

erimus 

eritis 

erint 



FuT. Perfect. 

cero 
tusfta, A 

^ •< ens 

*"'"> (erit 

r erimus 
*^(*^^^'] eritis 
^ ( erunt 





Imperative 




— 




re 


to 




tor 


te, tote 


mini 


nto 




ntor 



Present. 
Perfect. 
Future. 



Present. 
Perfect. 
Future. 
Supine. 



&. Nominal Forms » 

Infinitive. 
re (Pres. stem) ri or i (old rier, ier) 

sse (Perf. stem) tus (a, um) esse 

turus (a, um) esse tum iri 



Participle. 



ns, ntis 



turus, a, um 
tum, tu 



tus, a, um 

Gerundive, ndus, a, um 



Note. — The origin and meaning of some of the above verb-end- 
ings may be given as follows. The suffix bam is an imperfect of 
BHU, which appears m fm,futurus,flo, the Greek <|>i5a), and English 
he; — rem (for sem) is an optative or subjunctive imperfect of es, 
which appears in sum, clfit, am, &c. ; — bo is a future, and vi a 
perfect, of bhu ; — si is a perfect of es, and is kindred with the 
aorist-ending era, though not of the same formation; — erim is an 
optative form of es corresponding to sim ; — ero is the future of es 
(for es-io). 

29. Esse AND its Compounds. 

The verb esse, to he, is both irregular and defective, having 

no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future. 

Note. — The present participle, which should be sens (compare 
Sanskrit sunt), appears in that form in ab-seiis, prae-seiis ; and as 
ens (compare cov) in pot-ens. The simple form ens is sometimes 
found in late or philosophical Latin as a participle or abstract noun, 
in the forms ens, Being ; entia, things which are. 

3* 



58 



ESSE AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 



[29: L 



Principal Parts 



Present, sum, 1 am. 
Infinitive, esse, to be. 
Perfect, fui, I was or have been. 
Future Participle, futurus, about to be. 



Present. 







INDICATIVE. 




Sing. 


1. 


sum, I am. 


Sim, 1 




2. 


es, thou art. 


sis 




3. 


est, he (she, it) 


is, sit 


Plur. 


1. 


sumus, we are. 


simus 




2. 


estis, you are. 


sitis 




8. 


sunt, they are. 


sint 
Imperfect. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

/ am, may be, &c, (see 
[examples on p. 51). 



Sing. 1. eram, I was, 

2. eras, thou wast, 

3. erat, he was. 

Plur. 1. eramus, we were, 

2. eratis, you were. 

3. erant, they were. 



essem, was {would or forem 
esses, might be, Sfc). fores 
esset foret 



essemus 

essetis 

essent 



forent 



Future, 



Sing. 1. ero, I shall be. 

2. eris, thoii icilt be, 

3. erit, he will be. 

Plur. 1. erimus, we shall be. 

2. eritis, you will be. 

3. erunt, they will be. 



Perfect. 

Sing. 1. ixii, I was (have been). 

2. fuisti, thou loast, 

3. fuit, he was. 



fuerim, was (have been, may 
fueris [have been) . 

fuerit 



Plur. 1. fuimus, tee were. fuerimus 

2. fuistis, you were. fueritis 

8. fuerunt, they were, fuerint 
or fuere. 



i 



29: I.] ESSE AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 59 

Pluperfect. 
Sing. 1. fueranij I had been. fuissem, had been (might or 

2. fuerRS, thou hadst been, fuisses [would have been) , 

3. fuerat, he had been. fuisset 

Plur. 1. {ueramxiSyWehad been, fuissemus 

2. fueratis, you had been, fuissetis 

3. fuerant, they had been, fuissent 

Future Perfect. 

Sing. 1. fuero, / shall have been. 

2. fueris, thou wilt have been. 

3. fuerit, he will have been. 

Plur. 1. fuerimus, we shall have been. 

2. fueritis, you will have been. 

3. fuerint, they will have been. 

Imperative. 
Present, gs, be thou. este, be ye. 

Future, esto, thou shall be. estote, ye shall be. 

esto, he shall be. sunto, they shall be. 

Infinitive. 
Peesent. esse, to be. 
Perfect, fiiisse, to have been. 
Future, fore or futurus esse, to be about to be. 
Future Participle, futurus, a, um, about to be. 

Kare Forms. Fut. Indie, escit, escunt (strictly inchoative pres., 
§39). Pres. Subj. siem, fuam. 

Note. — The root of the verb esse is es-, which in the imperfect 
is changed to er- (§ 1, 3, e), and in many cases is shortened to s-. 
Some of its modifications, as found in several languages more or less 
distantly related to Latin, may be seen in the following Table ; — the 
" Indo-European " being the primitive or theoretic form, and the form 
si/dni corresponding to the Latin siem, sim : — 



Ind.-Eur. 


Sanskrit. 


Greek. 


Slavonic. 


Lithuanian. 


as-mi 


as-mi 


sydm (opt.) 


^JAJllt 


yes-mi 


es-mi 


as-si 


as-i 


syds 


l<rcr£t 


yes-si 


es-i 


as-ti 


as-ti 


syat 


l<rrC 


yes-ti 


es-ti 


as-masi 


s-mas 


sydma 


€0-U.€V 


yes-mu 


es-me 


as-tasi 


s-tha 


sydta 


€<rT€ 


yes-te 


es-te 


as-auti 


s-anti 


syus 


evTtt 


s-unti 


es-ti 



t Old Form. 

The Perfect and Supine stems, fui, futu-, are kindred with the Greek 
(^cj)v, was), and with the English be. 



60 



CONJUGATION. 



[29, 30. 



u. The verb esse is compounded, without any change of its 
inflection, with many prepositions. In the compound prodesse, 
to 'profile pro retains its original d where followed by e: as, 
prosum, prodes, prodest, prosumus, prodestis, prosunt 

h. Esse is also compounded with the adjective potis or pote, 
dble^ in the verb posse. Its inflection, with that of prodesse, is 
given in the following ; — 

Present. 



INDIC. 

possum, I can. 
potes, thou canst, 
potest, he can. 
possiimus, we can. 
potestis, you can. 
possunt, they can. 

poteram 



SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. 

possim prosum prosim 

possis prodes prosis 

possit prodest prosit 

possimus prosumus prosimus 

possitis prodestis prositis 

possint prosunt prosint 

Imperfect. 
possem proderam prodessem 

Future. 
potero prodero 

Perfect. 
potui potuerim profui profuerim 

Pluperfect. 
potueram. potuissem profuerami profuissem 

Future Perfect. 
potuero profuero 

Imperative. 

prodes, prodesto, &c. 

Infinitive. 
Pr. posse Perf. potuisse Pr. prodesse Perf. profuisse 

Participles. 
[potens, powerful.} profuturus, about to help. 

30. Conjugation. 

There are in Latin four principal forms of Present 
Stems, ending respectively in a, e, e, i. With this dif- 
ference of stem most of the other differences of conju- 
gation coincide. 

Verbs are accordingly classed in four regular 
conjugations., distinguished by the vowel before re in 
the Present Infinitive Active, which is the same in 
each case as those given above. 



30: I, 2.] CONJUGATION. * 61 

Note. — This mode of classification was invented by the Roman 
grammarians, and has been generally adopted by the moderns. In 
fact, however, the vowels a, e, i (long), found in the First, Second, 
and Fourth Conjugations, are different corruptions of the form aya, 
which in the original language was added to roots in one form of 
present stems. All other forms of present stems, except a few 
unmodified, had originally, or received in Latin, a sufiix ending 
in (or consisting of) a short, which was corrupted to e or i short. 
These are collected in the Third Conjugation. A few roots ending 
in a vowel w.ere drawn — perhaps hy vowel-increase — into the analogy 
of the other conjugations ; and a few of the fourth conjugation had 
lYA instead of aya. 

1. First Conjugation* Most verbs of the first coDJu- 
gation retain the stem-vowel (a) throughout, except in the 
present indicative^ which loses it before 0, and the present sub- 
junctive, where it is changed to e. 

- Note. — Dare, to give — stem originally da — retains a short, ex- 
cept in da and das. The Subjunctive with changed vowel (e) corre- 
sponds to the Greek and Sanskrit Optative, and is formed by the 
addition of a tense of i, to go, a-f-i becoming e. 

a. In the Future, the ending -bo, &c., is added to the present 
stem : as, vocabo. 

b. The Perfect stem adds vi to that of the present: as, 
vocavL But 

1. A few verbs, either always or occasionally, add vi not to the 
present stem, but to the root, v becoming u: as, sono, sonui 
(see p. 67). 

2. Two verbs, do, sto, form their perfect stem by reduplication : 
dedi, steti. 

c. The Supine stem adds t to the present stem ; but verbs that 
add vi to the root add t in like manner, sometimes with a connect- 
ing vowel: as, seco, sectus; domo, domitus. 

2. Second Conjugation, Only a few verbs of the sec- 
ond conjugation retain e throughout. 

a. The Present Indicative has e before o in the first person ; 
in the Present Subjunctive a (originally a) is inserted after e : as, 
deleo, deleam. 

Note. — The a in the present subjunctive is borrowed from the 
third conjugation. (See next head, 3, e, n.) 

h» The Future (as in the first conjugation) adds -bo, &c., to 
the present stem : as, delebo. 

c. In a few verbs, the Perfect stem adds vi to the present, as 
deleo, delevi; but in most this termination is added to the 
root, as moneo, monui (see p. 69). 



62 CONJUGATION. [30: 3. 

d» In a few, the root is reduplicated, and in several -si is 
added to the root, or its vowel is strengthened : as, tondeo, 
totondi; maneo, man^i; lugeo, luxi; caveo, cavi. 

€• For the Supine stem, those which add -vi to the stem add t 
also to the stem ; those which add vi to the root add t to the root, 
with the connecting-vowel i ; those which form the perfect other- 
wise add t (or its weakened form s) to the root: as, deletus, 
monitus, tonsus, mansus, cautus. 

3. Third Conjugation. To the third conjugation be- 
long those verbs which form the present stem in any other 
way than by adding a long vowel to the root. 

a. The Present Stem is formed in eight different ways, in all 
of which e (original a), or else a suffix containing it, is added to 
the Root. Besides this addition, — 

!• The vowel of the root is lengthened (vowel-increase) : as in 
duco, fido, nubo (compare diicis, perfidus, pronuba ; also Gr. 

AaTTW, root TlLTZ-). 

2. The root is reduplicated: as in sisto, bibo, gigno, from the 
root sta- (in status) , pa- (in potus) , gen- (in genus ; compare 

•ytyvofiatf root yev-), 

3. The root is strengthened by the insertion of n (m) before its 
final consonant : as in lindo, frango, cumbo (compare think, 
thought; fzavdavo), root fiad-}. 

4. Final 1 or r of the root is doubled by assimilation of an 
added consonant : as in fello, pello (compare areA^w, root crdvl-), 
verro. 

5. The consonant n is added to the root : as in cerno, lino, 
temno (compare Te/ivcj, root re/z-). 

6. The root adds sc or isc (originally and often still incep- 
tive) : as in disco (= dicsco, root die), nascor (root gna), 
nanciscor (root nac, compare (paoKu, evploKO)), 

7. The root adds t: as in pecto, plecto, mitto (compare 

KOnTO)). 

8. The root adds i (originally y) in the following: capio, 
cupio, -cutio, facio, fodio, fiigio, jacio, -licio, pario, quatio 
(-cutio), rapio, sapio, -spicio. 

Note. — Verbal stems in u add merely the vowel e, and are of 
the third conjugation. The u may be radical, as in suo, pluo, fluo ; 
or developed from a palatal, as in loquor, stinguo (cf gtI^cj) ; or 
may belong to the noun in denominatives, as statuo (statu-s), acuo 
(acu-s). Stems in o are lost, as po- (cf. potum) ; or have become 
of the first conjugation, as boo, boare. 



30: 3-] CONJUGATION. 63 

b» The stem-vowel e is weakened to i in several forms of the 
Present indicative and imperative ; is lengthened to e in the Imper- 
fect ; and undergoes other changes exhibited in the paradigm. 

c» The Future is formed (without the suffix bo) by vowel- 
changes to a and e before the personal endings. 

Note. — The a (properly long) of the future is borrowed from 
the present subjunctive ; the forms in e have the same origin as the 
present subjunctive of the first conjugation, and are properly optative. 

d^ The Perfect stem is formed in five different ways : — 

1. The root is reduplicated : as in cado, cecidi ; curro, 
ciicurri ; disco, didici. 

2. The root-vowel is increased, a becoming e, and i, 6, u being 
simply lengthened : as in capio, cepi ; fodio, fodi ; fiigio, fugi. 

3. The same form appears in the perfect as in the present stem : 
this is regular with verbs of this conjugation in uo (vo) : as, acuo, 
acui; solvo, solvi. 

Note. — It is probable that in the last two cases the root was 
originally reduplicated ; but that the reduplication was retained only 
where vowel-increase did not take place. 

4. The suffix si is added to the root : as in carpo, carpsi ; 
gero, gessi; siimo, sumpsi; dico, dixi; tego, texi. 

5. The suffix ui (vi) is added to the root : as in polo, colui ; 
fremo, fremui ; gigno, genui ; rapio, rapui. Before this suffix 
a long vowel of various origin is often found ; as in cupio, cupi- 
vi; peto, petivl; sperno, sprevi. 

Note. — Both suffixes are combined in the following: necto, 
nexui ; plecto, plexui. A few verbs vary : as, pango, panxi (pegi 
or pepigi) ; vello, velli or vulsi. 

e» The Present Subjunctive changes e to a : as, vehere, vehas. 

Note. — This form with a corresponds to the Greek and Sanskrit 
subjunctive with long vowel, and proceeds from the addition of 
another a (short) : compare 'i\r\s, vahasi. 

/• The Supine stem is formed by adding to the root t-, which 
in many cases takes euphonically the form s- (§ 1, 3,/. 4). 

Note. — A few roots take a connecting vowel before this affix, 
and some have both forms. When this is the case, the future parti- 
ciple and derivative verb take the longer form : as, ortus, oriturus ; 
actus (ago), agito. 

gr. Some verbs of the third conjugation form the other parts 
upon the (modified) present stem as a root : as, fingo, finxi, fict- 
(fig) ; jungo, junxi, junct- (jug). 

h. In verbs which add i to the root in the present stem, this 
vowel is lost where it would be followed by e or i (except in the 
future third person singular) : as in capit, caperet, capiet. 



64 CONJUGATION. [30 : 4, 5. 

4. Fourth Conjugation. Verbs of the fourth conju- 
gation retain i throughout, except before another vowel. 

a* Several forms of the present stem have in addition the final 
vowels of the third conjugation. In the Imperfect the regular 
form (retained in ibam, from eo) is often found in early Latin. 

ft. The Future does not take bo, but has ia and ie (from the 
third conjugation) before the personal endings. In early Latin the 
form in bo (retained in ibo) sometimes occurs. 

€• The Perfect stem adds vi to the present stem : as, finio, 
finivi. A few verbs add it to the root, as aperio, aperiii ; 
several add si, as sentio, sensi ; and in a few the perfect is the 
same as the present stem, with or without vowel- increase : as, 
reperio, reperi; venio, veni. 

d> The Supine stem adds t- to the present : as, finio, finitus. 
A few add it to the root : as, salio, saltus ; sepelio, sepultus. 

5. Principal PartSm The principal parts of a verb, 
which determine its conjugation throughout, are the follow- 
ing : 1. Present Indicative (showing the present stem) ; 2. 
Present Infinitive (the conjugation) ; 3. Perfect (the perfect 
stem) ; 4. Supine (the supine stem), 

a* The regular forms of conjugation are seen in the follow- 
ing:— 

1. vooo, vocare, vocavi, vocatum, call, 

2. deieo, delere, delevi, deletum, destroy. 

3. carpo, carpere, carpsi, carptum, gather, 

4. audio, audire, audivi, auditum, hear. 

In the second conjugation, however, the characteristic e rarely 
appears in the perfect and supine : thus the type of this conjuga- 
tion is — 

moneo, monere, monui, monitum, warn, 

6. What is called the Synopsis of a verb consists of the fi)'st 
person singular of each tense, with infinitive and participles, given 
in regular order : as, of amo, / love — 

Indic. amo, amabam, amabo, amavi, amaveram, amavero. 

SuBj. amem, amarem, amaverim, amavissem. 

Imp. ama, amato. 

Inf. amare, amavisse. 

Part, amans, amaturus, amatus, amandus. 

Notice that in all verbs the Imperf. and Pluperfect Subjunctive 
may be formed by adding the personal-endings to the present and 
perfect infinitive; and the Imperative Passive (second person) is 
the same in form with the present infinitive active. 



30 : 6, 7-] CONJUGATION. 65 

€• In many verbs the principal parts take the form of two or 
more diiferent conjugations : as, 

1, 2. domo, domare, domui, domitum, subdue. 

2, 3. augeo, augere, auxi, auctum, increase. 

3, 4. peto, petere, petivi, petitum, seek. 

4, 3. vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, bind. 

In these the conjugation is said to be denoted by thejirst or 
present stem. 

d* The compounds of many verbs vary from the forms of the 
primitive. This variation is seen especially (1) in the change of 
the vowel of the root, a in open syllables becoming i and in close 
syllables e, while e becomes i: as, capio, captum, concipio, 
conceptum ; teneo, contineo ; (2) in the loss of the reduplica- 
tion : as, concido, concidi. (This is, however, retained in com- 
pounds of disco, do, posco, sto, and in some of those of curro). 

6. Special Forms, The followiDg special forms are 
found in the conjugation of many verbs : — 

d* In tenses formed upon the Perfect stem, v between two 
vowels is often suppressed, and the second vowel merged in the first 
(unless a or e follows i or u) : as, amasse = amavisse ; flestis = 
flevistis ; audieram = audiveram ; nosse = novisse ; noram = 
noveram. This is especially frequent in verbs of the fourth conju- 
gation, and is regular in the compounds of eo : as, abiit for abivit. 

b» In many forms s with its vowel is suppressed in like manner 
when it would be repeated : as, dixti for dixisti. 

€• Four verbs — dico, duco, facio, fero — with several of their 
compounds, drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making 
die, due, fac, fer (but efiKoe, confice). The forms dice, duce, 
face (never fere) occur in early Latin. 

d» For the imperative of scio, the future form scito is always 
used in the singular, and scitote usually in the plural. 

€• The following are ancient forms, rarely found except in 
poetry : — 

1. In the fourth conjugation -ibam, -ibo for -iebam, -iam (fut.) ; 

2. In the present subjunctive -im: as in duim, perduim (re- 
tained also in religious formulas) ; 

3. In the perf. subj. and fut. perf. -so, -sim: as, faxo, faxim; 

4. In the passive infinitive -ier: as, vocarier for vocari. 

•7. JParallel Forms. Many verbs have more than one 

set of forms, of which only one is generally found in classic 

use: as, 

lavo, lavare or lavere, to wash. 
scateo, scatere or scatere, to gush. 
iudifico, are or ludificor, ari, to mock. 



66 



FIRST CONJUGATION. 



[3X. 



31, First Conjugation. 



ACTIVE 


VOICE. 


PASSIVE VOICE. 


INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 


INDICATIVE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Present, I love 


or am loving. 


I am beloved. 


amo, Horn. 


amem 


amor 


amer 


am as, ihou latest. 


ames 


amaris (re) 


ameris (re) 


amat, he loves. 


amet 


amatur 


ametur 


amamus, we love. 


amemus 


amamur 


amemur 


amatis, ijou love. 


ametis 


amamini 


amemini 


amant, they love. 


ament 


amantur 


amentur 


Imperfect, / loved (used to love). I was loved. 


amabam, I loved. 


amarem 


amabar 


amarer 


amabas 


amares 


amabaris (re) 


amareris (re) 


amabat 


amaret 


amabatur 


amaretur 


amabamus 


amaremus 


amabamur 


amaremur 


amabatis 


amaretis 


amabcimini 


amaremini 


amabant 


amarent 


amabantur 


amarentur 


Futiu'e, / shall love. 


/ shall be loved. 


amabo, I shall love. 


amabor 




amabis 




amaberis (re) 




amabit 




amabitur 




amabimus 




amabimur 




amabitis 




amabimini 




amabunt 




amabuntur 




Perfect, I loved (have loved). 


I was (have been) loved. 


amavi, / loved. 


amaverim 


amatus sum 


amatus sim 


amavisti 


amaveris 


amatus es 


amatus sis 


amavit 


amaverit 


amatus est 


amatus sit 


amavimus 


amaverimus 


amati sumus 


amati simus 


amavistis 


amaveritis 


amati estis 


amati sitis 


amaverunt (ere) 


amaverint 


amati sunt 


amati sint 


Pluperfect, I had loved. 


/ had been loved. 


amaveram, I had 


amavissem 


amatus eram 


amatus essem 


am aver as [loved. 


amavisses 


amatus eras 


amatus esses 


amaverat 


amavisset 


amatus erat 


amatus esset 


amaveramus 


amavissemus amati eramus 


amati essemus 


amaveratis 


amavissetis 


amati eratis 


amati essetis 


amaverant 


amavissent 


amati erant 


amati essent 


Future Perfect, / shall have loved. I shall have been loved. 


amavero, / shall have loved. 


amatus ero 




amaveris 




amatus eris 




amaverit 




amatus erit 




amaverimus 




amati erimus 




amaveritis 




amati eritis 




amaverint 




amati erunt 





31: I, 2.] FIRST CONJUGATION. 67 

ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. PASSIVE. 

Pk. ama, love thou, amare, he thou loved. 

amate, love ye. amamini, he ye loved. 

FuT. amato, he shall love, amator, he shall he loved. 



amatote, ye shall love. ■ 

amanto, they shall love. amantor, they shall he loved. 

Noun and Adjective Forms* 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres. amare, to love, amari, to he loved. 

Perf. amavisse, to have loved. amatus esse, to have heen loved. 

FuT. amaturus esse, to he amatum iri, amatus fore. 
about to love. 

PARTICIPLES. ^ 

pRES. amans, loving. 

Perf. amatus, heloved. 

FuT. amaturus, about to love. 

Gerundive, amandus, a, um, to he loved (lovely). 
Gerund. amandum, -di, -do, loving. 

Supines. amatum, amatu, to love. 

1. There are about 360 simple verbs of this conjugation, 
most of them formed directly upon a noun or adjective-stem, 
to which they generally give the force and meaning of an 
active verb: as, armo, to arm (arma) ; caeco, to Hind 
(caecus) ; exsulo, to he in exile (exsul). Their conjugation is 
usually regular, like amo ; though of many only a few parts 
are found in use. 

2. Those which form their Perfect and Supine stems 

differently are the following, — those marked t having also 

regular forms ; and those preceded by a hyphen being found 

only in compounds : — 

crepo, crepui, crepit-, resound, plico, plicui, -i^Wcit-^ fold. 

cubo, cubui, cubit-, lie down. poto, potavi, f pot-, drink, 

do, dare, dedi, dat-, give. seco, secui, sect-, C2tt. 

domo, domui, domit-, subdue, sono, sonui, sonit-, sou7td. 

frico, fricui, f frict-, rub. sto, steti, stat-, staiid. 

juvo, juvi, jut-, help. tono, tonui, tonit-, thunder. 

mico, micui, glitter. veto, vetui, w^tit-, forbid. 
neco, t necui, f nect-, kill. 



68 



SECOND CONJUGATION. 



[32. 



32. Second Conjugation. 



ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present, / warn. 
moneo, / warn, moneam 
mones, you warn, moneas 
monet, he warns, moneat 
monemus moneamus 

monetis moneatis 

inonent moneant 

Imperfect, I warned (was warning). 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 

I am warned. 

moneor monear 

moneris(re) monearis (re) 

monetur moneatur 

monemur moneamur 

monemini moneammi 

monentur moneantur 

/ was warned. 



monebam 

monebas 

monebat 

monebamus 

monebatis 

monebant 

Future, I shall warn 
monebo 
monebis 
monebit 
monebimus 
monebitis 
monebunt 



monerem monebar monerer 

moneres monebaris (re) monereris (re) 

moneret monebatur moneretur 

moneremus monebamur moneremur 

moneretis monebaniiiii moneremini 

monerent monebantur monerentur 

/ sliall he warned. 
monebor 
moneberis (re) 
monebitur 

monebimur 
monebimini 
monebuntur 



Perfect, I warned (have warned). 1 was (have been) warned. 



monui monuerim 

monuisti monueris 

monuit monuerit 

monuimus monuerimus 

monuistis monueritis 

monuerunt (re) monuerint 

Pluperfect, I had warned. 



monitus sum 
monitus es 
monitus est 
moniti sumus 
moniti estis 
moniti sunt 



monitus sim 
monitus sis 
monitus sit 
moniti simus 
moniti sitis 
moniti sint 



/ had been ivarned. 
monitus eram monitus essem 



monitus esses 
monitus esset 
moniti essemus 
moniti essetis 
moniti essent 



monueram monuissem 

monueras monuisses monitus eras 

monuerat monuisset monitus erat 

monueramus monuissemus moniti eramus 

monueratis monuissetis moniti eratis 

monuerant monuissent moniti erant 

Fut. Perfect, I shall have warned. I shall have been warned. 
monuero monitus ero 

monueris monitus eris 

monuerit monitus erit 

monuerimus moniti erimus 

monueritis moniti eritis 

monuerint moniti erunt 



32: I, 2.] SECOND CONJUGATION. 69 

ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. PASSIVE. 

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 

Pr. mone, warn, monete monere monemini 

F. moneto monetote 

mone to monento monetor monentor 

INFINITIVE. 

Pr. monere Pf. monuisse Pr. moneri Pf. monitus esse 

F. moniturus esse F. monitum iri (monitus fore) 

PARTICIPLES. 

monens moniturus monitus monendus 

Ger. monendum, di, &c. Sup. monitum monitu 

1. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of this conjugation, 
most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a cor- 
responding noun and adjective from the same root, and an 
inceptive form in -SCO : as, caleo, calor, calidus, calesco ; 
timeo, timor, timldus. 

2. Most verbs of the second conjugation form their per- 
fect and supine like moneo. The following have evi and 
etum : deleo, destroy ; fleo, weep ; neo, spin ; and com- 
pounds of -pleo, JilL The remainder are — 

algeo, alsi, be cold. moveo, movi, mot-, move. 

ardeo, arsi, ars-, burn. inulceo, mulsi, muls-, soothe- 

audeo, ausus sum, da7'e. mulgeo, si (xi), muls- (mulct-), 
augeo, auxi, auct-, mcrease. milk. 

caveo, cavi, caut-, care. niveo, nivi (nixi), -wink. 

censeo, censui, cens-, value. paveo, pavi.y^<7r. 

cieo, civi, cit-, excite. pendeo, pependi, haiig. 

doceo, docui, doct-, teach. prandeo, prandi, prans-, dine. 

faveo, favi, i-AViX.-, favor. rideo, risi, ris-, laugh. 

ferveo, fervi (ferbui), glow. sedeo, sedi, sess-, sit. 

foveo, fovi, fot-, cherish. soleo, solitus sum, be wont. 

frigeo, frixi, be cold. ' sorbeo, sorbui (sorpsi), stick. 

fulgeo, fulsi, shi7ie. spondeo, spopondi, spons-, to 

gaudeo, gavisus sum, rejoice, strideo, stridi, whiz. [pledge. 

haereo, haesi, hses-, cling. suadeo, suasi, suas-, urge. 

indulgeo, indulsi, indult-, /;/- teneo, tenui, tent-, hold. 

jubeo, jussi,juss-, ^r<^^r. [dulge. tergeo, tersi, ters-, wipe. 

langueo, langui. be faint. tondeo, totondi, tons-, shear, 

liqueo, liqui (licui), melt. torqueo, torsi, tort-, twist. 

luceo, luxi, shine. torreo, torrui, tost-, roast. 

lugeo, luxi, luct-, mourn, turgeo, turs'i, szvell. 

maneo, mansi, mans-, wait. urgeo, ursi, urge. 

misceo, cui, mixt- (mist-), mix. video, vidi, vis-, see. 

mordeo, momordi, mors-, bite, voveo, vovi, vot-, vow. 



70 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 



33. Third Conjugation. 



[33. 



ACTIVE VOICE. 


PASSIVE 


VOICE. 


INDICATIVE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


INDICATIVE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Present, I rule. 




I am 


ruled. 


rego, / rule. 


regam 


regor 


regar 


regis, thou rulest. 


regas 


regeris (re) 


regaris (re) 


regit, he rules. 


regat 


regitur 


regatur 


regimus, we rule. 


regamus 


regimur 


regamur 


regitis, you rule. 


regatis 


regimini 


regamini 


regunt, they rule. 


regant 


reguntur 


regantur 


Imperfect, I ruled (ivas ruling) 


I was 


ruled. 


regebam, / ruled. 


regerem 


regebar 


regerer 


regebas 


regeres 


regebaris (re) 


regereris (re) 


regebat 


regeret 


regebatur 


regeretur 


regebamus 


regeremus 


regebamur 


regeremur 


regebatis 


regeretis 


regebamini 


regeremini 


regebant 


regerent 


regebantur 


regerentur 


Future, / shall rule. 


I shall he ruled. 


regain, / shall rule. 


regar 




1 reges 




regeris (re) 




reget 




regetur 




regemus 




regemur 




regetis 




regemini 




regent 




regentur 




Perfect, I ruled 


' (have ruled). 


/ was (have 


been) ruled. 


rexi, I ruled. 


rexerim 


rectus sum 


rectus Sim 


rexisti 


rexeris 


rectus es 


rectus sis 


rexit 


rexerit 


rectus est 


rectus sit 


reximus 


rexerimus 


recti sumus 


recti simus 


rexistis 


rexeritis 


recti estis 


recti sitis 


rexerunt (re) 


rexerint 


recti sunt 


recti sint 


Pluperfect, / had ruled. 


/ had been ruled. 


rexerara, / had 


rexissem 


rectus eram 


rectus essem 


rexSras [_ruled. 


rexisses 


rectus eras 


rectus esses 


rexerat 


rexisset 


rectus erat 


rectus esset 


rexeramus 


rexissemus 


recti eramus 


recti essemus 


1 rexeratis 


rexissetis 


recti eratis 


recti essetis 


rexerant 


rexissent 


recti erant 


recti essent 



Fut. Perfect, 1 shall have ruled. I shall have been ruled. 

rexero, / shall have ruled. rectus ero 

rexeris rectus eris 

rexerit rectus erit 

rexerimus recti erimus 

rexeritis recti eritis 

rexerint recti erunt 



33.] 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 



71 



Pr. 
F. 



ACTIVE 

Sing, 

2. rege, rule. 



IMPERATIVE. 

Plur, Sing, 

regite regere 



PASSIVE. 



Plur. 



2. regito regitote 



regito 



regunto 



regitor 



regimini 



reguntor 



Pr. regere 



INFINITIVE. 

Pf. rexisse Pr. regi 



Pr. rectus esse 



recturus esse 



F. rectum iri (rectus fore) 



PARTICIPLES. 

regens recturus rectus regendus 

Ger. regendum, di, &c. Sup. rectum, rectu 

Verbs in io {present stem) are inflected as follows : — 



INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 


INDICATIVE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Present, 1 take. 


I am 


taken. 


capio, I take, capiam 
capis, thou takest. capias 
capit, lie takes, capiat 


capior 
caperis (re) 
capitur 


capiar 
capiaris (re) 
capiatur 


capTmus, we take, capiamus 
capitis, you take, capiatis 
capiunt, they take, capiant 


capimur 
capimini 
capiuntur 


capiamur 
capi a mini 
capiantur 


Imperfect, / took (was^ taking), 
capiebam, I took, caperem 
capiebas caperes 
capiebat caperet 


1 was taken. 
capiebar caperer 
capiebaris (re) capereris (re) 
capiebatur caperetur 


capiebamus caperemus 
capiebatis caper etis 
capiebant caper ent 


capiebamur 
capiebamini 
capiebantur 


caperemur 
caperemini 
caperentur 


Future, 1 shall take. 


/ shall be taken. 


capiam capiemus 
capies capietis 
capiet capient 


capiar 

capieris (re) 
capietur 


capiemur 
capiemini 
capientur 


Perf. cepi ceperim 


captus sum 


captus sim 


Plup. ceperam cepissem 


captus Sim 


captus essem 


F. P. cepero 


captus ero 




IMPERATIVE. 




cape capite 
capito capitote 
capito capiunto 


capere capimini 
capitor capiuntor 


Infin. capere cepisse 


capi capt 


:us esse 


Part, capiens capturus 


captus capiendus 



72 THTRD CONJUGATION. . [33 : I, 2, 3. 

1. The following simple verbs of this conjugation form 
the perfect and supine stems like rego, by adding s and t 
to the root. Those marked t take s in the supine: — 

ango, cJioJce ; carpo, pluck ; cingo, bind ; J claudo, shut ; 
clepo, steal; como, comb: coquo, cook; demo, take away; 
dico, say : duco, guide ; % figo, fix ; % flecto, bend ; frigo, fry ; 
X laedo, hurt ; lingo, lick ; % liido, play ; nubo, marry ; f pecto, 
comb; Jplaudo, applaud; plecto, twine; promo, bring out; 
Jrado, scrape; rego, 7'ule; repo, creep; Jrodo, gnaio; sarpo, 
prune ; soalpo, scrape ; soribo, ivrite ; serpo, craid ; sumo, take ; 
tego, shelter ; tingo, stain ; traho, drag ; J trudo, thrust ; % vado, 
go ; veho, draw ; vivo, live. 

Note. — In these verbs, h and v are treated as palatals, becom- 
ing X and ct ; p takes the place of b, and is inserted euphonically 
after m, before s and t; while d and t are omitted: as in scripsi, 
sumpsi, flexi, plausi; demo, promo, sumo, are old compounds. 

2. Verbs in io of the third conjugation are conjugated as 
follows : — 

capio, cepi, capt-, take. -licio, -lexi, -lect-, entice. 

cupio, cupivi, cupit-, desire, pario, peperi, part- (pariturus), 
-cutio, -cussi, -cuss-, shake. bring forth. 

facio, feci, fact-, make. quatio, — , quass-, shake. 

fodio, fodi., foss-, dig. rapio, rapui, rapt-, seize. 

fugio, fugi, fugit-,^^^. sapio, sapivi, or sapui, be wise. 

jacio, jeci, jact-, throw. -spicio, -spexi, -spect-, viezv. 

3. Those otherwise conjugated are the following (see 

§ 30, 3, a, h). 

ago, egi, act-, drive. cudo, -cudi, -cus-,/^^r^g. \jiown. 

alo, alui, alt- (alit-), nourish. -cumbo [cub], cubui, cubit-, lie 

arcesso, ivi, arcessit-, summon, curro, cucurri, curs-, run. 

bibo, bibi, bibit-, drink. depso, depsui, depst-, ktiead. 

cado, cecidi, C2iS-,fall. disco [dig], didici(discit-),/^«/';/. 

caedo, cecidi, caes-, cut. divide, divisi, divis-, divide. 

cano, cecini, cant-, si7ig. -do, -didi, -dit- (as in abdo, &c., 
capesso, capessivi, undertake. with credo, vendo), /?^/ [dha] 

cedo, cessi, cess-, yield. edo, edi, esum, eat (§ 37, 5). 

-cello, -cellui(-culi), -eels-, /?^5^. enio, emi, empt-, buy. 

-cendo, -cendi, -cens-, kindle: facesso,facessi,facessit-,^,3f^C2//^. 

cerno, -crevi, -cret-, decree. fallo, fefelli, fals-, deceive. 

colo, colui, cult-, dwells till. -fendo, -fendi, -fens-, ward off. 

compesco, compescui, restrain, fero, ferre, tuli, lat-, bear (§ 37, 

consulo, lui, consult-, c^;/5?^//. findo [fid], fidi, fiss-, 5^///. [4). 

cresco, crevi, cret-, increase. fido, fisus sum, trust.. 



i 



33, 3] THIRD CONJUGATION. 73 

fingo [fig], finxi, ^oX.-^ fashion, premo, pressi, press-, /r^55. 
fluo, fluxi, flux-,^^zx/. [break, pungo [pug], pupugi, punct-, ^ 
frango [frag], tVegi, fract-, to prick. 

fremo, fremui, fremit-, roar. quaero, quaesivi, qusesit-, seek. 
frendo, -fresi, fress-, gnash. quiesco, quievi, quiet-, rest. 

fundo [fud], fudi, {u.^-, pour. rudo, rudivi, rudit-, bray. 
furo, furui, rage. rumpo [rup], rupi, rupt-, burst. 

gemo, gemui, gQxnit-, groan. ruo, rui, rut- (ruit-),/^//. 
gero, gessi, gest-, carry. scabo, scabi, scratch. 

gigno[GEN],genui,genit-, ^e-^i^/. scando, scansi, scans-, climb, 
ico, ici, ict-, hit. scindo [scid], scidi, sciss-, tear, 

incesso, incessivi, ^//«Ci^. \yoke. scisco, scivi, scit-, decree. 
lacesso, lacessivi, lacessit-, /r^?- sero, sevi, sat-, sow. 
lambo, Iambi, lambit-, lap. sero, serui, sert-, entivine. 

lavo, lavi, lot- (laut-), ivash sido, sidi (sedi), sess-, settle, 

(reg. of ist conj.). sino, sivi, sit-, permit. 

lego, legi(intellexi), lect-,^«/f^^r. sisto [sta], stiti, stat-, stop. 
lino [li], levi (Hvi), lit-, smear, solvo, solvi, solut-,^«/, loose, 
linquo [lic], -liqui, -lict-, leave, spargo, sparsi, span,-, scatter^ 
luo, lui, luit-, ivash. sperno, sprevi, spret-, scorn. 

mando, mansi, mans-, chew, sterno, stravi, strat-, strew. 
mergo, mersi, mers-, plunge. sterto, stertui, s?iore. 
meto, messui, mess-, reap. strepo, strepui, strepit-, sound. 

mitto, misi, miss-, se?td. -stinguo,-stinxi,-stinct-,^?^<?«c^. 

molo, molui, molit-, grind. stringo, strinxi, strict-, bifid. 

necto [nec], nexi (nexui), nex-, struo, struxi, struct-, build. 

weave. suesco, suevi, suet-, be wont, 

nosco[GNo], novi,not-(cognit-), surgo, surrexi, surrect-, rise. 
nuo, nui, nuit-, nod. ^know, tango [tag], tetigi, tact-, touch, 

occulo, occului, occult-, hide. tendo, tetendi (-tendi), tens- 
pando, pandi, pans- (pass-), (tent-), stretch. 

ope?i. tergo, tersi, ters-, wipe, 

pango [pag], t pegi (pepigi),tero, trivi, trit-, ^«^. 

tpact-, fasten. texo, texui, text-, weave. 

parco, peperci, parcit-, spare, tollo [tol] (sustuli, sublat-), 
pasco, pavi, past-,/^^t/. tremo, tremui, tremble, {raise. 

pello, pepuli, puis-, drive. tundo [tud], tutudi, tuns-, beat, 

pendo, pependi, pens-, weigh, uro, ussi, ust-, burn. 
pergo, perrexi, perrect-, go on, vello, velli (vulsi), yw\^-, pluck. 
peto, petivi, petit-, seek. verro, verri, vers-, sweep. 

pingo [pig], pinxi, ^ict-, paint, verto, verti, vers-, turn, 
pinso, pinsi, pins-(pinst-, pist-), vinco [vie], vici, vict-, conquer, 

bruise. viso [vid], visi, vis-, visit, 

pono [pos], posui, posit-,/?//, vivo, vixi, vict-, live. 
posco, poposci (posciturus,) de- volvo, volvi, volut-, turn. 

mand. vomo, vomui, vomit-, vomit, 

prehendo, di, prehens-, seize. 

Those reduplicated in the perfect are — cado^ ccedo, curro^ 
disco, fallo^ pango, parco, pello, pendo, posco, pungo, tendo, 
tundo, 

4 



74 



FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



[34. 



34. Fourth Conjugation. 



ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present, I hear, 

audio, Ihear. audiam audior 

diudis, thouhearest.2iVidi^s audiris (re) 

audit, he hears, audiat auditur 

audimus, we hear, audiamus audimur 

auditis, you hear, audiatis audimmi 

audiunt, they hear, audiant audiuntur 

Imperfect, I heard (was hearing). 
audiebam audirem audiebar 

audires 
audiret 
audiremus 
audiretis 
audirent 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 

I am heard. 



audiebas 

audiebat 

audiebamus 

audiebatis 

audiebant 

Future, / shall hear. 
audiam, / shall hear, 
audies 
audiet 
audiemus 
audietis 
audient 

Perfect, / heard (have heard). 

audivi, / heard, audiverim 

audivisti audiveris 

audivit audiverit 

audivimus audiverimus 

audivistis audiveritis 

aiidiverunt (re) audiverint 

Pluperfect, / had heard. 
audiveram, 1 had audivissem 
audiveras [heard, audivisses 
audivisset 



audiar 

audiaris (re) 

audiatur 

audiamur 

audiamini 

audiantur 

I was heard. 

audirer 

audireris (re) 

audiretur 

audiremur 

audiremini 

audirentur 



audiebaris (re) 

audiebatur 

audiebartiur 

audiebamini 

audiebantur 

1 shall he heard. 
audiar 

audieris (re) 
audietur 
audiemur 
audiemini 
audientur 

/ was (have been) heard. 



auditus sum 

auditus es 
auditus est 
auditi sumus 
auditi estis 
auditi sunt 



auditus sim 
auditus sis 
auditus sit 
auditi simus 
auditi sitis 
auditi sint 



/ had been heard. 
auditus eram auditus essem 



auditus eras 
auditus erat 



audiverat 

audiveramus audivissemus auditi eramus 

audiveratis audivissetis auditi eratis 

audiverant audivissent auditi erant 

Fut. Perfect, / shall have heard. I shall have been heard. 

audivero, I shall have heard, auditus ero 



auditus esses 

auditus esset 

auditi essemus 

auditi essetis 

auditi essent 



audiveris 

audiverit 

audiverimus 

audiveritis 

audiverint 



auditus eris 
auditus erit 
auditi erimus 
auditi eritis 
auditi erunt 



34: 1,2; 35.] FOURTH CONJUGATION. 75 

ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. PASSIVE. 

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 
Pr. 2. audi, hear, audite audire audimini 
F. 2. audito auditote 

3. audito audiunto auditor audiuntor 

INFINITIVE. 

Pr. audire Pf. audivisse Pr. audiri Pf. auditus esse 

F. auditurus esse F. auditum iri (auditus fore) 

PARTICIPLES. 

audiens auditurus auditus audiendus 

Ger. audiendum, di, &c. Sup. auditum, auditu 

1 . There are — besides a few deponents and regular 
derivatives in -urio — about 60 verbs of this conjugation, a 
large proportion of them being descriptive verbs : viz., 

barrio, roar (as an elephant) ; orocio, croak ; cuciirio, crow ; 
dentio, teethe; ebullio, bubble; effutio, drivel; frigutio, stutter; 
fritinnio, twitter; gannio, yelp; glutio, gulp; grunnio, grunt; 
hinnio, 7ieigh ; hirrio, snarl ; ligiirio, lick ; lipio, scream (as a 
hawk); lippio, blink; mugio, bellow; muttio, mutter; pavio, 
trample ; scalptiirio, scratch ; scaturio, gush ; singultio, hiccup ; 
tinnio, tinkle ; tussio, cough ; vagio, cry. 

2. Those not conjugated regularly, like audio, are the 
following : — 

amicio, amixi (amicui), amict-, reperio, reperi, repert-f ^?id. 

clothe. salio, salui, salt-, leaf. 

aperio, aperui, apert-, open. sancio, sanxi, sanct-, satiction. 
comperio, peri, compert-,^/?<f. sarcio, sarsi, ^^.rt-, patch. 
farcio,farsi (farct-) (^-tum), stuff, sentio, sensi, sens-, /eel. 
fulcio, fulsi, fult-, prop. sepelio, sepelivi, sepult-, bury. 

haurio, hausi, haust-, drai7t. sepio, sepsi, sept-, hedge ift. 
operio, operui, opert-, cover. venio, veni, vent-, come. 
raucio, rausi, raus-, be hoarse, vincio, vinxi, vinct-, bind, 

35. Deponent Verbs. 

1. Deponent Verbs have the form of the Passive voice, 
with an active or reflexive signification : as, 

1. miror, mirari, miratus, admire. 

2. vereor, vereri, veritus, fear. 

3. sequor, sequi, secutus, follow. 

4. potior, potiri, potitus, possess. 



76 



DEPONENT VERBS. 



[35: I. 



The synopsis of these verbs is given as follows : — 







INDICATIVE. 






Pres. 


miror 


vereor 


sequor 


potior 


I3IP. 


mirabar 


verebar 


sequebar 


potiebar 


FUT. 


mirabor 


verebor 


sequar 


potiar 


Perf. 


miratus sum 


veritus sum. 


secutus sum 


potitus sum 


Plup. 


„ eram 


„ eram 


„ eram. 


„ eram 


Put. p. 


„ ero 


ero 
Subjunctive. 


„ ero 


„ ero 


Pres. 


mirer 


verear 


sequar 


potiar 


Imp. 


mirarer 


vererer 


sequerer 


potirer 


Perf. 


miratus sim 


veritus sim 


secutus sim 


potitus sim 


Plup. 


,, essem. „ essem. „ essem. „ essem. 


Tmperat. 


mirare, at or 


verere, etor 


sequere, itor 


potire, itor 


Infin. 


mirari 


vereri 


sequi 


potiri 


Part. Pr. 


mirans 


verens 


sequens 


potions 


FUT. 


miraturus 


veriturus 


secuturus 


potiturus 


Perf. 


miratus 


veritus 


secutus 


potitus 


Ger. 


m.irandus 


verendus 


sequendus 


potiendus 



a. These verbs have the participles of both voices : as, mirans, 
admiring ; miraturus, about to admire ; miratus, havhig ad- 
mired ; mirandus, to-be-admired {admirable). 

b. The participle in dus (gerundive) has necessarily a passive 
meaning, and hence is found only in transitive verbs, or of neuter 
verbs used impersonally (§ 39, c) : as, potienda est tellus, the 
land must be won ; pugnandum est nobis, we must fight. 

€• Most deponents are neuter or reflexive in their meaning, 
corresponding to what in Greek is called the middle voice. 

dm More than half of all deponents are of the first conjuga- 
tion, and all of these are regular. 

Cm About twenty verbs of active signification are found in both 
active and passive forms : as, mereo or mereor, deserve. 

/. Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive significa- 
tion : as, criminor, / accuse or / am accused. 

g. The perfect participle of verbs otherwise deponent is often 
passive : as, mercatus, bought ; adeptus, obtained. 

h. The following list contains all the irregular deponents : — 

adipiscor, i, adeptus, obtain. -miniscor, i, -mentus, thi7ik. 
expergiscor, i, -perrectus, rouse, metior, iri, mensus, measure. 



experior, in, expertus, try. 
fateor, eri, fassus, confess. 
fruor, i, fructus, enjoy. 
fungor, i, functus, />///?/. 
gradior, i, gressus, step. 
irascor, i, iratus, be a7tgry. 
labor, i, lapsus, /«//. 
loquor, i, locutus, speak. 



morior, i (iri), mortuus (mori- 
turus, moribundus), die. 

nanciscor, i, nactus (nanctus), 
find. 

nascor, i, natus, be bor?i. 

nitor, i, nisus (nixus), strive. 

obliviscor, i, ohXitns, forget. 

opperior, iri, oppertus, await. 



35: 2; 36.] DERIVATIVE VERBS. 77 

ordior, iri, orsus, hegm. {rise, queror, i, questus, C07nflain» 
orior, i (iri), ortus (oriturus), reor, reri, ratus, thhik. 
paciscor, i, pactus, bargain, sequor, i, secutus,y<?//^w. 
patior, i, passus, suffer. tueor, eri, tuitus (tutus), ^^«<f. 

-plector, i, -plexus, clasp. ulciscor, i, ultus, avenge. 

proficiscor, i, profectus, set-out. utor, i, usus, use^ employ, 

2, Semi-Deponents. A few verbs, having no perfect 

stem, form the tenses of completed action like the passive : 

these are called semi-deponents or neuter passives. They are 

the following: — 

audeo, audere, ausus, dare, 
fido, fidere, fisus, trust, 
gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus, rejoice, 
soleo, solere, solitus, he wont, 

a. From audeo there is an old subjunctive ausim. The 
form sodes (for si audes), an thou witt, is frequent in the 
dramatists. 

6. The active forms vapulare, to he flogged, and venire, to 
he sold (venum ire, go to sale), having a passive meaning, are 
sometimes called neutral passives. To these may be added fieri 
(fio), to be made, and exsulare, to he banished (live in exile). 

36. Derivative Verbs. 

Several classes of verbs have derivative meanings corre- 
sponding to their form. (For their formation, see § 44.) 

a. Inceptives or Inchoatives end in -sco, and denote the 
beginning of an action: as, calesco, I grow icarm (caleo) ; 
vesperascit, it is getting late (vesper). They are of the third 
conjugation, and have only the Present stem, though often com- 
pleted by forms of simple verbs. 

h* Intensives or Iteratives end in -to or -ito, and denote 
2i forcible or repeated action : as, jactat, he hurls (jacio) ; dic- 
titabat, he kept saying (dico). They are of the first conjugation. 

Note. — Iteratives (or Frequentatives), though distinct in meaning 
from Intensives, are not always distinguished from them in form. 

c. Another form of Intensives (sometimes called Medita- 
tives, or verbs of practice) ends in -sso, denoting a certain 
energy or eagerness of action: as, facessit, he makes haste to 
do. They are of the third conjuo-ation, with perfect and supine of 
the fourth : as, lacesso, lacessivi, laceSsitum, to j^rovoke, 

d. Diminutives end in -illo, and denote a feeble or petty 
action; as, cantillare, to chirp or warble (cano, sing). 



78 



IRKEGULAR VERBS. 



[37: I. 



€• Desideratives end in urio, expressing longing or wish, 
and are of the fourth conjugation. Only these three are in com- 
mon use, emptiirio (emo, buy), esiirio (edo, eat), parturio 
(pario, bring forth). Others occur lor comic effect in the 
dramatists. 

37. Irregular Verbs. 

[For esse and its compounds, see § 29.] 

Several verbs retain older forms in the tenses of the 

present stem, or combine two roots in their inflection. 

These are called Irregular Verbs. 

The most common verbs of this class are — 

1. Volo, vene, volui, to wish (the supine stem appears in 
vultus, countenance). 

2. Nolo (non volo), nolle, nolui, to be unwilling, 

3. Malo (mage-volo), malle, malui, to prefer. 

[For the inflection of volo, nolo, nialo, see opposite page.] 

4. Fero, ferre, tuli, latum, to bear. 

Note. — The perfect tuli is for tetuli (which sometimes occurs), 
from TUL in tollo ; the Supine latum for tlatum (cf TTirjTog). 





ACTIVE. 


PASSIVE. 


Pres. 


INDIC. 

fero 


SUBJ. 

feram 


INDIC. 

feror 


SUBJ. 

ferar 




fers 


feras 


ferris 


feraris (re) 




fert 


ferat 


fertur 


feratur 




ferimus 


feramus 


ferimur 


feramur 




fertis 


feratis 


ferimini 


feramini 




ferunt 


ferant 


feruntur 


ferantur 


Imp. 


ferebam 


ferrem 


ferebar 


ferrer 


FUT. 


feram 




ferar 




Perf. 


tuli 


tulerim 


latus sum 


latus sim 


Plup. 


tuleram 


tulissem 


latus eram 


latus essem 


F. Perf. 


. tulero 




latus ero 




Pres. 


Sing. 

fer 


IMPERATIVE. 

Plur. Sing. 

ferte ferre 


Plur. 

ferimini 


FUT. 


ferto 


fertote 








ferto 


ferunto 


fertor 


feruntor 




Pres. 
ferre 


infinitive. 
Perp. Pres. 
tulisse ferri 


Perp. - 
latus esse 




Pres. 
ferens 


PARTICIPLES. 

FuT. Perp. 
laturus latus 


Ger. 
ferendus 



37.] 



VOLO, NOLO, MALO. 



79 



Inflection of volo and its Compounds. 



VOIjO, VJiU, NOLO, toiU not. MAIiO, prefer. 

INDIC. SITBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. 8UBJ. 

Present. 



volo 


velim 


nolo 


nolim 


malo 


malim 


vis 


veils 


nonvls 


nolis 


mavis 


mails 


vult 


velit 


nonvult 


nolit 


mavult 


malit 


vol'mnus 


veli'mus 


nornmus 


noli'mus 


marumus 


mali'mu3 


vultis 


velitis 


nonvultis 


nolitis 


mavultis 


malitis 


volunt 


velint 


nolunt 


nolint 


malunt 


malint 






Imperfect. 






volebam 


velletn 


nolebam 


noUem 


malebam 


maUem 


vclebas 


velles 


nolebas 


noILes 


malebas 


malles 


volebat 


vellet 


nolebat 


nollet 


malebat 


ma,llet 


volebamus veUemus 


nolebamus 


nollemus malebamus mallemus 


volebatis 


velletis 


nolebatis 


nolletis 


malebatis 


malletis 


volebant 


vellent 


nolebant 


nollent 


malebant 


mallent 






Future. 






volain 




nolamt 




malamt 




voles 




noles 




males 




volet 




nolet 




malet 




volemus 




nolemus 




malemns 




voletis 




noletis 




maletis 




volent 




nolent 




malent 








Perfect. 






volui 


-erim 


nolui 


-erim 


malui 


-erim 


voluisti 


-eris 


noluisti 


-eris 


maluisti 


-eris 


voluit 


-erit 


noluit 


-erit 


maluit 


-erit 


voluimus 


-erimus 


nolalmus 


-erimus 


malTiimus 


-erimus 


voluistis 


-eritis 


noluistis 


-eritis 


maluistis 


-eritis 


voluerunt 


-erint 


noluerunt 


-erint 


maluerunt 


-erint 



volueram -issem. 
volueras -isses 
volaerat -isset 
volueramus -issemus 
volueratis -issetis 
voluerant -issent 



voluero 

volueris 

voluerit 

voluerimus 

volu eritis 

voiuerint 



PR. 

Fur. 



Pres. velle 
Perf. voluisse 



Pluperfect. 

nolueram -issem 
nolueras -isses 
noluerat -isset 
nolueram.us -issemus 
nolueratis -issetis 
noluerant -issent 

Future Perfect. 

noluero 

nolueris 

noluerit 

noluerimus 

nolueritis 

noluerint 

IMPERATIVE. 

noli, noli'te, do not. 

noli'to, nolito'te, thou skalt not^ ye shall not. 

noli'to, nolunto, lie s/uUl not^ they shall not. 



malueram -issem 
malueras -isses 
maluerat -isset 
malueramus -issemus 
malueratis -issetis 
maluerant -issent 



maluero 

malueris 

maluerit 

maluerimus 

malaeritis 

maluerint 



INFINITIVE. 

nolle 
noluisse 



malle 
maluisse 



PABTICIPLE. • 
Present, volens, willing. nolens, unwilling. 

Gerund, volendi, volendo nolendi 



tRare. 



80 IRREGULAR VERBS. [37: 5, 6, 7. 

5. Edo, to eat (regular of third conjugation), has also some 
forms directly from the root without a characteristic vowel : viz., 

Ind. Pres. es, est, estis ; Subj. Pres. edim, Imperf. essem ; 
Imperat. es, esto, este ; Infin. esse ; Passive, estur, essetur ; 
and, in compounds, comes, comest, comestum, comesum; 
exest, exesset, exesse. 

6. Eo, ire, ivi, itum, to go (root 1, cf. dfu ; the e stands for ei 
produced by vowel-increase from i). The forms of eo are found 
in veneo, to he sold (venum eo, goto 



INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. S. eo, is, it earn, eas, eat 

P. imus, itis, eunt eamus, eatis, eant 

Imp. ibam, ibas, ibat irem, ires, iret 

ibamus, ibatis, ibant iremus, iretis, irent 

FuT. ibo, ibis, ibit 

ibiDius, ibitis, ibiint 

Perf. ivi (ii) iverim (ierim) 

Plup. iveram (ieram) ivissem (issem) 

Put. p. ivero 

Imperat. i, ite; itote, eunto 

Infin. Pr. ire Per. ivisse (isse) 

Part. P. iens, euntis F. iturus 

7. Pacio, facere, feci, factum, to make, — regular, with the 
peculiar forms fut. perf. faxo, perf. subj. faxim, imperat. fac. It 
has for its passive 

fio, fieri, factus sum, to he made, or hecome^ 

of which the tenses of the first stem are regular of the fourth con- 
jugation, but with subj. imperf. fierem. 





indicative. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Pres. S. 


fio, fis, fit 


fiam, fias, fiat 


P. 


fimus, fitis, fiunt 


fiamus, fiatis, fiant 


Imp. 


fiebam 


fierem 


Fut. 


fiam, fies, &c. 




Perf. 


factus sum 


factus sim 


Plup. 


factus eram 


factus essem 


Fut. p. 


factus ero 




Imperat. 


fi, fite ; fito, fitote, fiunto 




Infin. 


Pres. fieri P. 


factus esse 


Part. 


Perf. factus 


faciendus 



38: 1,2.] DEFECTIVE VERBS. 81 

Most compounds of facio with prepositions change a to i or e, 
and form the passive and imperative regularly : as, 

conficio, conficere, confeci, confectum, to finish. 
Other compounds retain a, and have -fio in the passive : as, 

bene-facio (-fa'cis), -feci, -factum ; pass, benefio, to benefit. 
A few isolated forms of -fio occur with prepositions (see § 38, h). 

38. Defective Verbs. 

1. Some verbs have lost their Present stem, and use only 
tenses of the Perfect (sometimes with the meaning of the 
present), in which they are inflected regularly. 

a* Coepi (root co-ap as in apiscor) , / began, Infin. coep- 
isse; Fut. Part, coepturus. A passive participle coeptus is 
used with the passive infinitive. For the Present, incipio is used. 

h» Odi, / hate (root 6d- in odium) ; with the participles osus, 
hating or hated (perosus, utterly hateful), osurus, likely to hate. 

€• Memmi, I remember (root men, as in meus, reminiscor), 
with the imperative memento and mementote. 

Note. — Odi and meinini, having a Perfect form with a present 
meaning, are called preteritive vo'bs. 

2. Many verbs have only the Present stem, and in many 
the simple verb is incomplete, but the parts appear in the 
compounds. Some occur very commonly, but only in a few 
forms : as, 

a. Aio (root agh found in adagium and in nego, which has 

passed into the first conjugation) : 

Ind. Pres. Sing, aio, I say. Plur. 

ais 

ait aiunt 

Imperf. aiebam (aibam), aiebas, &c. 
SuBj. Pres. aias, aiat, aiant. 
Imperat. ai. — Part, aiens. 

h* Inquam, say (used only in quotations, as the English quoth, 
which is from the same root) : 

IxD. Pres. Sing, inquam Plur. inquimus 

inquis inquitis 

inquit inqueunt 

Imperf. inquibat. — Fut. inquiet. — Perf. inquisti. 

Imperat. inque, inquit o. 

4* 



82 IMPERSONAL VERBS. [38: 2; 39. 

c. Fari, to speak, forms the periphrastic tenses regularly : as, 
fatus sum, eram, &c. It has also 

Ind. Pres. fatur, fantur. — Fut. fabor, fabitur. 

Imperat. fare. — Infin. fari. — Part, fanti (with the com- 

poimd infans, as noun). 
Gerund, fandus, to he spoken of (with the compounds infan- 

dus, nefandus, abominable). — Supine, fatu. 

The compounds affamur, affabimur, praefamini, &c., occur. 

d» Quaeso, I ask, beg (an original form of quaero), has 
quaeso, quaesiimus, quaesere, quaesens. 

€• Ovare, to triumph, has the following: 
ovat, ovet, ovaret; ovans, ovandi, ovatus, ovaturus. 

/• A few are found chiefly in the Imperative : as, 
salve, salvete, hall! also salvere (from salvus). 
ave (or have), avete. aveto, hail, ov farewell. 
cedo, cedite (cette), cjice, tell. 
apage! begone! (properly a Greek word). 

gr. Queo, / can, nequeo, / cannot, are conjugated like eo. 
They are rarely used except in the Present. 
Ind. Pres. queo, quis, quit, quimus, quitis, queunt. 

Imp. quibam, quibat, quibant. — Fut. quibo, quibunt. 

Perf. quivi, quivit, quiverunt. 

SuBj. Pres. queam, &c. — ^Imp. quirem, quiret, quirent. 

Perf. quiverit. — Plup. quissent. 
Infin. quire, quivisse (quisse). — Part, quiens, queuntis. 

Ind. Pres. nequeo (often non queo), nonquis, nequit, ne- 
quimus, nequitis, nequeunt. 
Imp. nequibam, -ibat, -ibant. — Fut. nequibunt. 
Perf. nequivi, nequivisti, nequivit, nequiverunt. 

SuBj. Pres. nequeam, &c. — Imp. nequirem. 
Perf. nequiverim. — Plup. nequisset. 
Infin. nequire, nequivisse. — Part, nequiens. 

h* The following compounds of fio have only the forms confit, 
it comes to pass ; defit, it lacks; infit, he begins (to speak). 

39. Impersonal Verbs. 
Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in the 
third person singular., Avith the infinitive and gerund. 
These are called Impersonal Verbs. 

Note. — With impersonal verbs the word it is used in English, 
having usually no representative in Latin, though id, hoc, illud, are 
often used nearly in the same way. 



39, 40.] PERIPHRASTIC FORMS. 83 

Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows : — 

a. Verbs expressing the operations of nature : as, pluit, it 
rains ; ningit, it snows ; grandinat, it hails ; fulgurat, it lightens. 

In these, no subject is distinctly thought of; though sometimes 
the name of a deity is expressed ; and, in poetic use, of other 
agents also : as, fundae saxa pluunt, the slings rain stones. 

6. Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject 
becomes the object, as if himself affected by the feeling expressed 
in the verb. Such are, miseret, it grieves ; poenitet, it repents ; 
piget, it disgusts; pudet, it shames; taedet, it wearies: as, 
miseret me, / pity {it distresses me) . 

Such verbs often have also a passive form: as, misereor, 
/ pity (am moced^ by pity) ; and occasionally other parts : as, 
libens, licens, poeniturus, poeuitendus, pudendus. 

€• By a similar construction, the passive of intransitive verbs 
is very often used impersonally: as, puQuatuVf there is fghting ; 
dicitur, it is said ; parcitur mihi, / am spared. 

Note. — This use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive 
meaning, the action being regarded as accomplishing lYse//' (compare the 
French cela sefait). 

d* Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject : as, 
libet, it pleases ; licet, it is permitted ; certum est, it is resolved ; 
constat, it is clear ; placet, videtur, it seems good : decet, it is 
becoming; delectat, juvat, it delights; oportet, necesse est, 
it is needful; praestat, it is better ; interest, refert, it concerns ; 
vacat, there is leisure; with verbs of happening and the like. 
Many of these are also used personally. 

40. Periphrastic Forms. 

When the tenses of esse are used with a Participle, this 
use is called periphrastic conjugation. It is most frequent — 

a* With the participle in urus, to express intention, or simple 
futurity ; this is sometimes necessary in the subjunctive: as, cum 
venturus sit, since he is about to come. This form is sometimes 
called the. first periphrastic conjugation; and, when used with sim, 
the future subjunctive. 

h* With the gerundive to denote duty or propriety : as, vera 
dicenda sunt, the truth must be told. This form is sometimes 
called the second periphrastic conjugation. 

€• With the perfect participle, in the regular inflection of the 
tenses of completed action In passives and deponents. 

Note. — The participle in tus frequently, and that in ns regularly, 
is used with esse simply as an adjective : as, sapiens est, he is wi^e; 
acceptus est, he is welcome. 



84 PARTICLES. [41 •• I 



PARTICLES, 



41. Adverbs. 

What are called Particles — that is, all Adverbs, 
Prepositions, and Conjunctions — are real or extinct 
case-forms^ or else compounds and phrases. 

In classification Particles cannot always be distinguished ; many- 
prepositions and conjunctions being also reckoned among adverbs. 

!• Derivation. The regular adverbs of manner are 
formed from Adjectives. 

[For the comparison of these adverbs, see § 17, 4.] 

aa Adjectives of the first and second declensions change the 
characteristic vowel of the stem into e (originally an ablative in 
d) : as, from carus, dear, care, dearly. 

So abunde, saepe, prope, from adjectives not in use; as also 
prod (pro), re- (red-), se-, (sed-). 

h. Adjectives of the iJiird declension add -ter to the stem (most 
being treated as i-stems): as, fortiter, bravely; vigilanter, 
watchfully. 

Note. — This suffix is of uncertain origin, probably the same as 
in the Greek -repos, and in alter y uter ; and, if so, these are neuter 
accusatives. 

c. Some adverbs of the former class have both forms : as, 
dure, duriter; misere, miseriter. (So aliter from alius — 
old stem ali-.) 

d. The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often 
used as an adverb (strictly a cognate accusative, see § 52, i, d) -. 
as, multum, much; actutum, at once; facile, easily ; non (=ne 
unum), not; iterum (comparative of is), again. 

e. The ablative neuter or (less commonly) feminine is used 
adverbially: as, falso, falsely; cito, quickly; recta (via), 
straight (^straightway) ; contra, on the other hand; qua (parte), 
where; qui, how; alioqui, otherwise. 



41: 1,2.] 



PARTICLES. 



85 



/. A few adverbs are datives of adjectives and pronouns : as, 
quo, whither; adeo, so; ultra, beyond; citro, this side; retro, 
back (compar. of uls, cis, re) ; illoc (illo-ce, weakened to illuc), 
thither. 

g. Some locative forms are used as adverbs: as, ibi, there; 
ubi, where, &e. ; peregre, abroad ; hie, here ; interim, mean- 
while; deinde, then; tamen, yet; and the compounds extrin- 
secus, outside ; perendie, day after to-morrow, 

h. Several feminine accusatives are used as adverbs : as, 
statim, on the spot; saltim, with a leap (generally in the form 
saltern, at least) ; palam, openly ; perperam, wholly otherwise 
(i.e., changed for the worse); tain, quam, nam (which may be 
neuters) . 

i. Several plural accusatives^ neuter and feminine, are used 
adverbially, as frustra, vainly; alias, otheiuoise; foras, out of 
doors. 

Jc. Some adverbs are of uncertain formation : (1) those in -tus 
(usually preceded by i) : as, penitus, funditus, from the bottom 
{utterly) ; divinitus, providentially, — which are ablative in mean- 
ing ; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -do (in quan-do, when ; do-neo, 
until), dum, perhaps jam (from the same root with dies, 
diu, &c.). 

l» Many phrases or clauses have grown into adverbs : as, 
antea, before; postmodo, a Hide after; denuo (de novo), 
again ; prorsus, utterly ; quotannis, every year ; quamobrem, 
wherefore; obviam, in the way ; pridem, before the day (i.e., be- 
fore this time) ; forsan, a chance whether ; forsitan (fors sit an) , 
perhaps; scilicet (scire licet), to be sure. 

(For Numeral Adverbs, see § 18, 3.) 

2. Classification. Adverbs, other than those directly 
formed from adjectives, are classified as follows : — 



a. Adverbs of JBlace. 



quo, -whither^ 
hue, hither. 
eo, thither. 
istuc ,, 



Uluc 



ubi, where, 
hie, here. 
ibi, there, 
istic ,, 
illic ,, 
alicubi, someivhere ; 
ibidem, in the same place ; 
alibi, elsezvhere ; 
ubiubi, wherever ; 
ubivis, anywhere ; 
sicubi, if anywhere ; 
necubi, lest anywhere ; 



unde, whence. 
hinc, hence. 
inde, thence, 
istinc ,, 



illinc 
aliquo 
eodem 
alio 
quoquo 
quovis 
siquo 
nequo 



alicunde 

indidem 

aliunde 

undecunque 

undique 

sicunde 

necunde 



qua, by what way, 
hac, by this way, 
ea, by the way. 
ista ,, 
ilia (iliac) „ 

aliqua. 

eadem. 



alia. 

quaqua. 

quavis. 

siqua. 

nequa. 



86 ADVERBS. [41: 2. 

nusquam, nowhere ; ultro, beyond {or freely) ; citro, to this side; 

intro, ifiwardly ; -^orvo, further on. 
quorsum (quo versum), to what end P horsum, this way; pror- 

SLim, forward (prorsus, utterly) ; introrsum, inwardly; 

retrorsum, backward ; sursum, upward; deorsum, down- 

ward ; seorsum, apart; aliorsum, a?iother way. 

b. Adverbs of Time. 

quB.ndo? when P cum (quom, quum), when (relat.). 

nunc, now; tunc (turn), then; mo-is.^ presetitly. 

primum (primo), J^r5/; deinde {^o^iQ2i) ^ next after ; postremum, 

{Y>o?>t\'emo)^ finally. 
umquam (unquam), ever ; numquam, never; semper, always. 
aliquando, some time, at length ; quandoque (quandocumque), 

whenever- 
quotiens (quoties), how often; totiens, aliquotiens. 
quotidie, every day ; in d'\Q^,fro7n day to day, 
nondum, not yet ; necdum, nor yet ; vixdum, scarce yet ; quam 

primum, as soon as possible. 

c. Adverbs of Degree or Cause* 

(\u2i\w, how, as ; tarn, 5^; qu?iV[\Yis,, however much. 
cur, quare, why ; quod, quia, because ; eo, therefore. 
ita, sic, so ; ut (uti), as, how ; utut, utcumque, however. 
quamquam (quanquam), although; etiam, quoque, even, also. 

d. Interrogative Particles. 

an, -ne, anne, utrum, num, whether. 

nonne, whether not; numquid, ecquid, whether at all ; (ecquid 

intellegis ? have you any idea f) 
utrum (num), -uq, whether ; ... an (annon, necne), or. 
— J, an, -ne „ 

Note. — The word whether is not now used in English, except in 
Indirect Questions (See § 71). 

e. Negative Particles, 

non, not in simple denial ; baud (hau, haut), or minime, not 

in contradiction; ne, not in prohibition. 
ne, lest ; neque, nee, nor ; ne . . . quidem, 7iot even. 
non modo . . . verum (sed) etiam, not only . . . but also. 
non modo . . . sed ne . . . quidem, not only not . . . but not 

even. 
si minus, if not ; quo minus, so as not. 
quin (relat.), but that ; (interrog.) lohy notf who {what) not^ 
ne (in compos.), not: as, nescio, I knoio not; nego (ne-aio), 

/ say no (aio, / say yes)] nemo (ne homo), no one; ne 

quis, lest any one. 



1 



41: 2, 3-] ADVERBS. 87 

Remark. — Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative : as, 
nemo non audiet, everij one will hear. 

This is especially frequent with compounds of non : as, nonnul- 
lus (=aliquis), some; nonnihil (=aliquid), something; nonnemo 
(= aliquot), sundry persons ; nonnumquam (= aliquotiens), some- 
times ; necnon, also. 

On the other hand, nemo non, nuUi non, every one; nihil non, 
everything; numquam non, always, &c. 

3. Signification. The following adverbs require special 
explanation : — 

a, Etiam, also, is stronger than quoque, and usually pre- 
cedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it : as, 

terret etiam nos, ac minatur (Rose. Am. 40), us also he terrijies 

a?id threate7is. 
hoc quoque maleficium (id.), this crime too. 

h. Nunc, noio, means ^e^mtely the present time; jam, already, 
— or, with the future, presently; with negatives, no longer, — has 
reference to the past. Tunc, then, is a strengthened form of turn, 
which is correlative with cum, ichen : as, 

nunc jam confiteris, now at length you confess. 
non est jam lenitati locus, there is no lo7iger room for mercy, 
quod jam erat institutum, -which had come to be a ^practice. 
nunc quidem deleta est, tunc florebat (Lsel. 4), 7101^ (^tis true) 

she [Greece] is rui^ied, the?! she was i7i her glory. 
tum cum regnabat, at the ti77ie he reig7ied. 

c, Certo mesins certainly ; certe (usually), a^ an?/ ra^g; as, 

certo scio, I know for a certai7tty. 

aut jam urgentis aut certe adventantis senectutis (CM. i.), of 
old age, which is already pressing or at least approachi7ig. 

d, Primum, frst {first in order, or for the first time), is 
usually followed by deinde, tum, . . . denique: prime, at first, 
by postea (post) or mox, aftericards. (The adjective form is pre- 
ferred in such phrases as nos primi, we first, &c.) Thus, 

primum de genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, tum da impera- 
tore deligendo (Manil. 2), first of the ki7id of war, 7iext 
of its greatness, the7i of the choice of coi7ima7ider. 

e, Quidem, indeed., is emphatic, and often has a concessive 
meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, &c. (see above 
nunc quidem, &c.). With ne . . . quidem, not even or not 
either, the emphatic word must stand between : as, 

senex ne quod speret quidem habet (C. M. 19), an old 7nan has 

NOT EVEN any thi7ig to hope for. 
ne Jugurtha quidem quietus erat (Jug. 51), nor was Jugurtha 

quiet EITHER. 



88 PREPOSITIONS. [42: 1,2. 



42. Prepositions. 

1. Prepositions are not originally distinguished from 
adverbs in form or meaning. They are, however, distin- 
guished in their use, requiring to be followed by some 
special case of a noun or pronoun. 

a. The following Prepositions require the accusative: — 

ad, to. erga, toioards. post, after. 

adversus, or extra, outside. praeter, beyond. 

adversum, toioards. infra, below. prope, near, 

sate, before. inter, among. -propter, on account of. 

apud, at^ near. intra, inside. secundum, next to. 

circa, or juxta, near. supra, above. 

circum, around. 6b, on account of. trans, across. 

circiter, about. penes, in the power, ultra, on the further 

cis, citra, this side, per, through. side. 

contra, against. pone, behind. versus, towards. 

h* The following require the ablative : — 

a, ab, abs, from, by. e, ex, out of. 

absque, but for, without. prae, in comparison with. 

coram, in presence of. pro, in front of for. 

cum, with. sine, without. 

de, from. tenus, up to, or as far as. 

€• The following may take either case, but usually with a dif- 
ference in meaning : — 



in, into, in; sub, under; subter, beneath; super, above. 

b, when followed by the Accusative, signif) 
le Ablative, rest in, a place. 

(For the Syntax of Prepositions, see § 56.) 



In and sub, when followed by the Accusative, signify motion to, 
when by the Ablative, rest in, a place. 



2. The meaning and use of these prepositions may be 
seen in the following examples, which include many adverbial 
phrases : — 

A, ab, away from (opposite of ad) : ab eo loco, from that 
f>lace ; a r\o\i\^, from our house; prope ab urbe, 7iear (not far 
from) the city ; seciindus a rege, 7iext the king; liberare ab, to 
set free from ; occisus ab hoste (periit ab hoste), slain by an 
enemy; a fronte, in front ; ab hac parte, 07i this side ; a primo, 
at first ; ab re, afterwards ; dolet ab animo, he grieves at heart ; 
ab initio ordiri, to begin at the begi7t?ii7ig ; stat ab amicis, he 
stands by his friends ; ab hac contione, after this speech ; ab re 



42: 2.] PREPOSITIONS. 89 

ejus, to his advantage ; servus a manu, an amatiuensts ; a pedi- 
bus, a footman. 

Note.. — ab signifies direction from the object, but towards the 
speaker; compare de and ex. 

Absque, without: — absque argumento, without argument; 
absque paucis, except a few ; absque me, but for me. 

Ad, to^ towards^ at (place or time) : — eo ad patrem, I go to 
my father ; ad pedes ejus, at his feet ; ad flumen, near the river ; 
ad ripas, on the hanks; ad meridiem, towards the south; ad 
x^^'^^xwTCi^ near evening ; ad tempus, a/ /^^ (fit) time; adiit ad 
x^Ti\'^\xh\\Q,?iVi\^ he went into public life ; ad manus, to blows; ad 
petendam pacem, to seek peace ; ad communem salutem,yi?;' /^^ 
common safety ; nihil ad Csesarem, nothing in comparison with 
Ccesar ; ad hunc modum, in this ivay ; quem ad modum, how, as ; 
ad nupt'ias, for the wedding; ad 2iux\\iuiin, for aid; ad hos ca- 
sus, y^^r these emergencies ; ad centum, near a hundred ; ad pri- 
mum nuntium, at the first message ; ad hoc, besides ; ad speciem, 
in respect to form; ad praesens, ybr the mome?it ; ad verbum, 
word for word; ad summum, in shorty at inost ; ad ultimum, 
wholly, finally ; ad unum, to a man. 

Adversus (-sum), opposite, towards, against: — adversus mon- 
tem, over against the moniitain ; te adversum, to your face ; ad- 
versus eum, in compariso?i with him ; adversus ea, in reply to 
this ; adversus deos, towards the gods. 

Ante, /'« front, before (place or time) : — ante oculos, before 
his eyes; ante urbem captam, before the city was taken; ante 
diem quintum (a.d.v.). Kal , the fifth day before the Calends {third 
day before the end of the month) ; ante quadricnnium, four years 
before or ago ; ante alios carissimus, dearest of all ; ante tem- 
pus, too soon ; ante ommsi, first of all ; ante Ciceronem, before 
Cicero's time. 

Apud, at or by (rarely of places) : — apud forum, in the forum; 
apud populum, before the people ; apud exercitum, with the 
army; apud aliquem, at one's house; apud se, at home, or in 
his senses; apud Ciceronem, /« Cicero (in his works); apud 
antiquos, among the ancients. 

Circum (ace), circa (abl.), circiter (stem as in circus, circle^, 
about, around: — circum axem vertitur, // turtis about the 
axle; circum haec loca, hereabout ; circa se habent, they have 
with them; (of time or number, circa or circiter, not cir- 
cum) : — circa eandem horam, abotit the same hour ; circiter pas- 
sus mille, about a mile ; circa bonas artes (late), in reference to 
good arts ; loca haec circiter, hereabout. 

Cis, eitra (abl. of comparative, compare Greek -T€pos), this 
side of (both motion towards and rest in ; opposite to ultra) : — 
cis Padum, this side the Po ; citra flumen, this side the river ; 
citra rustici operam, within the labor of a farmer ; citra usum, 
without regard to use; citra satietatem, not to fulness ; paucos 
cis dies, withi^i a few days. 



90 PREPOSITIONS. [42: 2. 

Contra (abl. comp of cum), opposite^ against: — contra Itali- 
an!, over agai?ist Italy • contra hostem, against the enemy ; contra 
munera, as a set- off to the gifts; haec contra, this in reply; 
contra autem, but 07i the other hand, adv. ; quod contra, whereas 
on the other hand, adv. ; non pro me sed contra me, not for but 
agaitist me ; contra fas, contrary to right. 

Coram, in presence of (only of persons) : — coram judicibus, 
before the judges ; Germanico coram (Tac), usually an adverb. 

Cum, with (together in place or time) ; — cum fratre, with his 
brother; abi cum donis, away with your gifts ; cum malo suo, 
to his own hurt ; cum labore, with toil ; cum dis volentibus, with 
favor of the gods ; cum decimo, te7ifold ; confligere cum hoste, 
to fight with the enemy ; cum armis, in arms; cum imperio, in 
power; cum pallio, in a cloak; esse cum telo, to go armed; cum 
silentio, in silence, 

De, from, away, down from : — de domo, out of the house ; de 
sella, down from his seat ; unus de plebe, 07ie of the people (the 
whole, from which apart is taken); emi domum de Crasso, / 
bought a house of Crassus (also ab) ; de tuo (de te), out of your 
property ; qua de re, concernittg which thi?tg ; qua de causa, for 
which reason; de summo genere, of high birth ; de improviso, 
of a sudden ; de industria, on purpose ; de integro, anew; de 
nocte, at 7iight ; de tertia vigilia, y«5/ at fnidnight (starting at 
the third watch) ; de mense Dec. navigare, to sail i7i Dece7nber ; 
de amicorum sententia, i7i accorda7ice with the views of friends ; 
triumphare de, to triu77tph over ; de schola, of that sect. 

Erga, towards (usually of persons): — erga aedes, opposite 
the house ; benevolentia erga nos, ki7idness towards us; malus 
erga me, spiteful towards me (but more generally used of a favor- 
able inclination). 

Ex, e, fro7n (the midst, opposed to in), out of: — ex urbe, 
from the city ; ex hoc die, y)'*?;;/ this day forth ; statu a ex aere, 
a statue of brass ; ex fuga, during flight ; ex consulatu, right 
after his co7isulship ; ex aere alieno, by reaso7i of debt ; ex 
ejus sententia, after his opi7iio7t; ex aequo, yV^//)'/ ex impro- 
viso, U7iexpcctedly ; ex tua re, to your advantage ; ex voluntate 
ejus, by his good will; magna ex parte, /*// a great degree; ex 
pede Herculem, to k7iow one by a slight token ; felix ex misero, 
betteri7ig 07te's conditio7i ; ex Metello consule, beginning with 
Metellus's consulship ; ex pedibus laborare, to be lame in the feet ; 
ex equo pugnare, to fight 07i horseback. 

Extra, outside of (opposed to intra): — extra provinciam, 
beyo7id the provi7ice ; extra causam, beside the case; extra te 
unum, except you alo7te (not used of time). 

In, i77to (ace. opp. to ex), in (abl. of time or place): — in 
urbem ire, to go to town ; in mentem venit, // coi7tes to 7nind ; amor 
in (erga or adversus) patrem, love for his father ; in aram con- 
fugit, he fed to the altar (on the steps or merely to^ ; in diem, 
to the set day ; in d'lts, from day to day ; vi. pedes in longitudi- 
nQm, six feet lo7ig ; in vi. partes fractus, broke7i i7i six parts ; 



42: 2.] PREPOSITIONS. 91 

in haec verba jurare, to swear to these words ; in alicujus verba 
jurare, to take a?i oath of allegia^ice to one ; in silvam deponere, 
to (carry and) place in the wood ; hunc in modum, in this way ; 
oratio in Catilinam, a speech against Catiline; in universum 
(in planum), on the whole ; in totum, wholly; in reliquum,ybr 
the rest; in perpetuum,y6>r ever ; in majus, too much; in pejus, 
for the worse; in quantum, so far as; in magnam partem, i7i 
great fart ; in utramque partem, on either side; nos in diem 
vivimus (Tusc. v. \\)^we live from hatid to mouth ; — in urbe esse, 
to be in the city ; in tempore, in season ; in scribendo, while writ- 
i?ig ; est mihi in animo, I have it in mind; in collo, on the neck ; 
in arbore, up the tree ; in ancoris (Caes.), at anchor ; in altera 
parte, on the other side ; in sapientibus, ainong the wise ; in hoc 
homine, i7i the case of this man ; in bonis artibus (Sail.)? in good 
behavior. 

Infra, below : — infra caelum, under the sky ; infra nos, beneath 
us; infra Homerum, later than Homer ; infra iii. pedes, less than 
three feet. 

Inter, between (of two limits): — inter flumen et montem, 
between the river and hill (so of time) ; inter noctem, in the 
course of the night ; inter bibendum, while drinking; interest 
inter, there is a difference between; inter se amant, they love each 
other ; inter se loquuntur, they talk together ; inter nos, between 
ourselves ; inter ceteram planitiem, in a district elsewhere level. 

Intra, within (surrounded on all sides) : — intra parietes, i7i' 
side the house ; (of time), intra v. dies, within five days; intra 
legem, i^iside the law. 

Juxta, hard by (superl. from jungo) : — juxta murum, close 
to the wall ; juxta se, «//^^ with himself; juxta deos, next the 
gods; juxta vicinitatem (Liv.), by reason of nearness; juxta 
quam, nearly as ; juxta ac si, about as if. 

Ob, towards (in place) : — ob Romam (early), towards Rome; 
ob oculos, before the eyes; ob eam causam,y^r that reason ; ob 
rem, to the purpose ; ob hoc, therefore ; quam ob rem, wherefore. 

Penes, with^ i^i possession of (same root as penitus) : — est 
penes me, he is with me (at my house) ; non est penes me, it is 
not in my power. 

Per, through (in any direction) : — per urbem ire, to go through 
the city ; licet per va^.you may for all me ; juro per leges, I szvear 
by the laws ; per literas, by letter; per jocum, in jest; per Ion- 
gum tempus,y(?r a long time ; per somnum, during sleep. 

Pone, <^^i^/V/^ (only in space) : — pone tergum, behind the back. 

Post, after (space or time) : — post iii. dies, after three days; 
post tergum, behind the back; post me, after me (in time). 

Prae, i7ifro?tt: — prae se ferre. to carry before him {exhibit or 
77iake know7i) : prae gaudio conticuit, he was sile7it for joy (used 
only of an objection or hindrance) ; prae fratre egens est, he is 
poor compared to his brother. 



92 PREPOSITIONS. [42: 2. 

Praeter, by^ on the outside: — praeter spem, beyond hope; 
praeter hoc, besides this ; praeter oculos, before the eyes; nil prae- 
ter saxa, nothing but sto7ies. 

Pro, iji front (facing the same way) : — ^^xo ^^o^wXo^ in ^pres- 
ence of the people ; pro lege, in defe?tce of the law; argentum 
pro vino, mo7iey for wine ; pro hac \\cQ^for this once; pro con- 
sule, in place of consul ; pro viribus, C07isideri7ig his stre^igth, 

Prope, near : — prope (propius, proxime) urbem, or ab urbe, 
near the city ; prope lucem, towards daybreak. 

Propter, 7iear : — propter te sedet, he sits next you ; propter 
quos vivit (Mil. 22), through whose mea^is he lives ; propter me- 
tum, through fear ; propter frigora (Cses.), by reason of cold. 

Secundum, just behind^ followi7ig alo7ig (part, of sequor) : — 
ite secundum me (Plant.)? go behind 7ne ; secundum litus, near 
the shore; secundum flumen, alo7ig the strea7n ; secundum ludos, 
after the ga77tes ; secundum naturam, accordi7ig to 7iature ; secun- 
dum causam nostram, to the adva7itage of our cause. 

Sine, apart from : — urbs sine regibus, a city without kings; 
non sine lacrimis, with tears ; sine sanguine, bloodless. 

Sub, under : — sub jugum mittere, to send U7ider the yoke ; sub 
montem succedere, to co7ne close to the hill ; sub noctem, towards 
night ; sub lucem, near daylight ; sub hsec dicta, at these words; 

— sub terra, u7idergrou7id ; sub Jove, in the ope7i air ; sub monte, 
at the foot of a hill; sub castris, 7iear the ca7ttp ; sub terra exi- 
mere (Plant.), to take fro7n under groimd ; subprofectione (Caes.), 
duri7ig the 77iarch ; sub eodem tempore, about that time; sub 
oculis domini, under the 7naster's eye; sub regno, under royal 
power ; sub lege, liable to the law. 

Subter (rarely with abl.), be7ieath : — subter fastigfa tecti, under 
the house- roof ; subter praecordia, close to the heaH ; subter mu- 
rum, beneath the wall ; subter se, below itself; subter testudine, 
under the shed (of shields). 

Super, above, over: — super tumulum, 07i the hillock;, super 
ipsum, above him (at table) ; su^^qy lr\do?>, beyond the Hindoos ; 
super cenam loqui, to talk duri7ig supper ; super morbum fames 
etiam, besides sick7iess fa7nine also; super omnes, above all; 

— super cervice (Hor.), over his head ; super arbore sidunt, they 
perch 071 a tree; nocte super medisi (Y'iy.), about 7nid7iight ; super 
tali re, about such an affair ; satis superque, 77iore than e7iough. 

Supra, on the top: — supra terram, above groiuid ; supra 
caput (Sail.), i7n7ni7tent ; supra Alexandriam, beyo7id Alexa7i- 
dria ; supra banc memoriam, before our reme7nbrance ; supra 
mille, above a thousand ; supra morem, 7nore tha7i usual ; supra 
quod, besides. 

Tenus, as far as: — capulo tenus, up to the hilt ; verbo (nom- 
ine) tenus, i7i 7ia77te, 7i07ni7ially ; aurium tenus, as far as the ears 
(only) ; labrorum tenus, alo7ig the lips. 

Trans, beyond : — trans mare, over sea ; trans flumen, beyond 
the river (rest or motion). 



42: 3- 43: I, 2.] CONJUNCTIONS. - 93 

Ultra, ^;? //^^ further side : — ultra eum, heyo7td him ; portas 
Vi\Xx2i^ beyond the gates ; ultra pueritiam, later than childhood; 
ultra eum numerum, more than that number ; ultra fidem, incred- 
ible ; ultra modum, immoderate^ 

Versus, iur?ied to (Eng. -ward): — Italiam versus, towards 
Italy (usually with another prep.) ; modo ad urbem modo in 
Galliam versus (Sail.), now towards the city, now towards 
Gaul. 

3. Prepositions are frequently compounded with verbs, 

retaining their original meaning as Adverbs : as, 

a, ab, away (aufero, bear off) ; ad, tozvards (afFero, bring) ; 
ante, before; cireum, arou?id (urbem circumire = ire circum 
urbem); eon (cum), together; de, dow?t ; di or dis (insep.), 
apart; ex, out^ completely ; in, /;/, 07i^ against ; inter, between, 
into^ to pieces ; ob, towards, i7i the way of; per, through, thor- 
oughly ; re, red (insep. )> back, agaiit ; se, sed (insep.), apart; 
sub, lutder, near ; super, over, in place of. (For the assimila- 
tion of the final consonant, see page 4.) 

43. Conjunctions. 

1. Classification, Conjunctions are more numerous, 
and their use is much more accurately distinguished, in Latin 
than in English. They are divided into two classes, viz. : — 

a. Co-ordinate: — these include Copulative (and), Disjunc- 
tive (or), Adversative (but), Causal (for), Illative (there- 
fore) . 

&. Subordinate: — these are Conditional (if), — Including 
Comparative (as if), Concessive (though, even if), — Tem- 
poral (when). Causal (because, since). Consecutive (so 
that), Final (in order that). 

2. The following list includes most of the conjunctions 
and conjunctive phrases in common use. 

Note. — Some of these have been included in the classification of 
Adverbs, and a list of Interjections has been added. See also list 
of Correlatives, page 49. 

a. Copulative and Disjunctive, 

et, -que, atque (ac), a^id. 

etiam, quoque, neque non (necnon), quinetiam, itidem (item), 

also. 
cum . . . turn; turn . . . tum, both . . . and ; not only . . . but also. 
qua . . . qua, 071 07ie hand, 07i the other hand. 
modo . . . modo, now . . . now. 
aut . . . aut; vel . . . vel (-ve), either . , . or. 
sive (seu) . . sive, whether . . . or. 



94 CONJUNCTIONS. [43: 2. 

et . . . et ; et . . . -que (atque) ; -que . . . et ; -que . . . -que (poet.), 

both . . . and. 
nee (neque) . . . nee (neque) ; neque . . . nee ; nee . . . neque (rare), 

neither . . . nor. 
et . . . neque, both . . . and not, 
nee (neque) . . . -que, neither . . . and. 

h. Adversative. 

sed, autem, verum, vero, at, atqui, but. 

tamen, attamen, sed tamen, verumtamen, but yet ^ nevertheless. 

nihilominus, none the less. 

at vero, enimvero, but {for) in truth. 

ceterum, 07i the other hand, but. 

c. Causal, 

nam, namque, enim, etenim, for. 
quia, quod, because. 

quoniam, quippe, cum (quom), quando, quandoquidem, siquidem, 
utpote, since, inasmuch as. 

d. Illative. 

ergo, igitur, itaque, ideo, idcirco, proinde, therefore. 
propterea (. . . quod), for this reaso7t (. . . that). 
quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quocirca, unde, ivherefore, 
vjhe7tce. 

e. Comparative. 

ut, uti, sicut, velut, prout, praeut, ceu, as, like as. 
tamquam (tanquam), quasi, utsi, acsi, as if. 
quam, atque (ac), as, tha7t. 

f. Conditional. 

si, if; sin, but if; nisi (ni), unless, if not ; quod si, but if. 
modo, duin, dummodo, si modo, if only, provided. 
dummodo ne (dum ne, modo ne), provided o?ily not. 

g. Concessive. 

etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, tamenetsi, quamquam, although. 
quamvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, however much. 
licet, ut, cum (quom), though. 

Note. — A concessive is often followed by an adversative : as, tamen- 
etsi . . . tamen nihilominus, though . . . yet none the less. 

h. Temporal. 

cum (quom), cum primum, ubi, ut, ut primum, postquam, when. 
prius . . . quam, ante . . . quam, before (non ante . . . quam, not 

. . . until). 
quando, simulatque (simul ac), simul, as soon as, 
dum, usque dum, donee, quoad, until. 

i. Final. 

ut (uti), quo, in order that. 

ne, ut ne, lest {in order that not) ; neve (neu), nor. 

quin (after negatives), quominus, but that (so as to prevent). 



43:2,3] CONJUNCTIONS. 95 

k. Interjections. 

O, en, ecce, ehem, papae, vah (of astonishment). 

io, evae, evoe {pi Joy). 

heu, eheu, vae, alas! (of sorrow). 

heus, eho, ehodum, ho ! (of calling). 

eia, euge {oi praise). 

proh (of attestation) : as, proh pudor, shame ! 

3. Special Meaning. The following list includes most 
of the conjunctions whose meaning or use requires special 
notice : — 

a. Et, and, connects independent words or clauses ; -que 
(enclitic) combines closely into one connected whole ; atque 
(sometimes ac before consonants) adds with emphasis. In the 
second member, and not is expressed by neque or nee. 

Atque (ac), as, is also used after words of comparison and 
likeness, as idem, the same, simul, as soon, aliter, otherwise. 

b. Sed and verum or vero (more forcible) , but, are used to 
contradict what precedes, — always after negatives ; at, yet, intro- 
troduces with emphasis a new point, especially in argument (at 
enim almost always) alluding to a supposed statement on the 
other side ; autem is used in the same way, especially in tran- 
sitions, but with less force. 

c. Aut, or, excludes the alternative ; vel (-ve) gives a choice ; 
sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions, but is also 
used with single words, — especially two names for the same thing. 
(But of aut and vel the use is not always clearly distinguished.) 

d» Nam (namque), for, introduces a sufficient reason ; enim, 
an explanatory circumstance ; etenim (for, you see ; for, you 
know), something self-evident, or needing no proof. 

e» Ergo, therefore, is used of things proved logically ; itaque, 
in proofs from the nature of things ; igitur, then (a weak ergo), 
in passing from one stage of the argument to another, often merely 
to resume ; idcirco, for this reason, to call attention to a special 
point. 

/. Quia, because, regularly introduces a fact ; quod, either a 
fact or a statement or allegation ; quoniam, since, has reference 
to motives. 

g. Quom (cum), when, is always a relative conjunction, often 
a correlative with tum ; quando is also used as interrogative or 
indefinite (quando? when? si quando, if ever). 

h* Et . . . et, means simply both . . . and ; cum (less fre- 
quently tum) . . . tum has also the meaning not only . . . but also, 
emphasizing the second member. 



96 DERIVATION OP WORDS. [43: 3. 44: I. 

i. Autem, enim, vero, always follow one or two words in 
their clause ; the same is generally true of igitur, and often of 
tamen. 

'A^. Conjunctions are often doubled, for the sake of emphasis, or 
to bind a sentence more closely to the preceding : as, at vero, 
itaque ergo (namque, etenim). The same is true of Relatives, 
which are equivalent to a conjunction and demonstrative combined : 
as, qui ubi sit nescio, for where he is I know not. 



44. Derivation of Words. 

The Root is a primitive element of speech. ATI 
roots are monosyllabic, and have a short vowel. 
Stems are formed from roots, and are divided into 
two main groups ; viz., noun-stems (including adjec- 
tives) and verb-stems. 

1. Noun Forms m Derivative Nominal forms include 

(1) nouns of agency, (2) names of actions^ (3) active and 

passive adjectives. 

Note. — Examples of roots are es, 6e; i,go; sta^ stand; cat, take; 
DUG, lead; fac, make; fer, bear; rap, seize; sed, sit; ten, stretch 
(see also pp. 72,73). 

a» Roots and Steins. Roots may be used as stems (1) without 
change, as in due-is, nec-is ; (2) with vowel-increase, as in luo-is, 
pac-is; (3) with reduphcation, as in furfur, marmor; (4) com- 
pounded, as in judic-is (jus, dico), conjug-is (con-jugo). But 
Stems are more commonly formed by means of suffixes added to 
the root (primary), or to a stem (secondary), either with or without 
the above changes. 

b* Primary Suffixes. The simplest suffixes are the voAvels a 
(in Latin o, a) , i, u. Other primary suffixes are ta, ti, tu ; na, ni, 
nu; va, ra, ya, ka, an. 

Note. — The vowel-suffixes a, i, u, are sometimes regarded as if 
merely added to the root to fit it for inflection ; but they are, in fact, 
true pronominal roots, and must be regarded as formative suffixes. 
The first is found in nouns and adjectives of a- and o-stems, as 
ludus, vagus, scriba, toga (foot teg) ; — i is less common, and in Latin 
has frequently disappeared, especially in the nominative, as in scobs 
{scobis, root scab) ; — u is disguised in most adjectives by an addi- 
tional i, as in suavis (for suadvis, cf. r/dvg), tenuis (root ten in tendo), 
and remains alone only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acns 
(root AK, sharp, in acer, acies, cjKvg), pecu (root pak, bind, in paciscor). 



44: I.] DERIVATION OP WORDS. 97 

The signification of the other primary suffixes is as follows : — ta 
(in the form to-) makes the regular perfect participle, as tectusj tectum; 
sometimes active, as in potuSy pransiis; and is found in a few not recog- 
nized as participles, as putus, altus {alo} ; — ti forms abstracts, rarely 
nouns of agency, as messis, vestisy pars^ mens; — tu forms abstracts (in- 
cluding supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as actus, luctus; — 
na, forming perfect participles in other languages, in Latin makes 
adjectives of like meaning, which often become nouns, as magnus 
(=mactus, root mag), plenus, reynum ; — ni, nouns of agency and adjec- 
tives, as ignis, segnis ; — nu, rare, as in manus, sinus ; — ma, various, as 
in animus, aimus, Jirmus, forma ; — ysl (commonly uo), of active or 
passive meaning, as in equus, arvum, conspicuus, e.riguus, vacivos {vacuus) ; 
— ra (or la, a passive participle termination in other languages), 
usually passive, as in ager, integer, pleri-que ( = plenus =^ -pletus) , sella 
(for sed-la, cf. edpa) ; — ya (gerundives in other languages), adjectives 
and abstracts, including many of the first and fifth declensions, as 
' eximius, audacia, Florentia, pernicies ; — ka, sometimes primary, as in 
pauci (cf. Tzavpog), locus (for stlocus, cf 8k. sthara, sthala, Ger. Stelle, 
Eng. stall) ; — an (in, on), in nouns of agency and abstracts : as aspergo, 
compago (Ijiis), gero {onis). 

The above, with some compound suffixes given below, belong to the 
original language, and most of them were not felt as living formations 
in the literary period. But developed forms of these, with a few other 
primary suffixes, were used consciously, — generally as secondary 
suffixes. The old primary suffixes thus used are (along with ta and 
tu, given above) man, ant, vant, tar, tro, as. (Observe that it is 
the stem, not the nominative, that is formed by the suffix, although the 
nominative is given for convenience of reference.) 

€• Significant Endings. The principal classes of regular 
derivate nouns and adjectives, as indicated by their nominative- 
ending, are the following: — 

1. Nouns of Agency (active adjectives or appellatives), end- 
ing in — 

tor (lengthened from tar, m.), trix (trie- = tar -j- ic, f.), added 
to the same form of stem that precedes t of the supine (which 
for convenience maybe called the supine-hase) , or to noun- 
stems bv analos^v : as ductor, victrix, viator. Earlier forma- 
tions with tar are pater, mater, 

es (-itis), descriptive nouns, as miles , comes. 

3. Names of Actions (passing into abstracts, instruments, 
results) : — • • 

or (m.), es (-is, f. — all from as) : as timor, sedes, decus, 

io (added to pres. stem), tio, tura, tus (to supine base), verbal 

abstracts : as legio, actio, pictura, cultus (those in tus more 

concrete). 
turn (ya) from neuter abstracts (with verb-stems), as gaudium; 

or from nouns meaning offices or groups: as hospitium, 

servitium, collegium. 

5 



98 DERIVATION OP WORDS. [44: I. 

men (man), mentum (man -f- ta), monia, monium (man -|- 

ya), denoting act, means, or result: a.sjlumen, carmen, orna' 

mentum, querimonia, matrimonium, 
ia, tia, tas, tus, tudo, do, go, feminine abstracts, often passing 

into concretes : as audacia, militia, duritia (ies), bonitas, 

soDitus, altitudo, dulcedo, lanugo. 
brum, crum, trum, bulum, culum, nouns of means, usually from 

verb- stems : as claustrum^ lavacrum, vehiculum, turihulum. 

3. Adjective forms, passing frequently into names of per- 
sons or things : — 

iilus (following a vowel, olus ; following s or r, ciilus), ellus, 
illus, Diminutives (with endings for gender), forming nouns 
V or adjectives, meaning little or tender : as puercidus, puella 
(puerula), puellula, asellus (asinulus), misellus (miserulus). 
Rare diminutive forms are eculeus, homuncio. 
ades (f. as), ides, ides (f. is, eis), Patronymics, denoting 
parentage, &c., as ^neddes, Priamides, Priameis. 

anus, enus, inus ; as (-atis), ensis ; ius, iacus, acius, Gentile 
names, denoting country — with other rare forms — several 
being derived from the same word : as Ores, Creticus, Cretceus, 
Cressus, Cretensis, 

ax, ulus (rare), vus (uus, ivus), denote tendency or inclination, 
those in ax being often faulty or aggressive, those in ivus 
rather passive : as pugnax, bibulus, protervus, nocuus, captivus. 

aris, alis, elis, ilis, ulis (all from ra), with inus, orius, and several 
of the above gentile forms, denote various ideas of relation or 
possession. Several neuters of derivatives in ilis signify 
place, as ovile; and many of those in alis, aris (usually 
with loss of e), also become nouns (regular i-stems) ; those 
in inus, from names of animals, are often used of flesh. 

eus, inus, aceus, icius, denote material, &c. : asfraxineus, 

osus (old onsus, vant), olens, olentus (root 61 in adolesco), 
denote full of, or inclined to, as fluctuosus, hellicosus ; so 
idus (generally verbal) with similar meaning : as cupidus, 
gelidus; bundus, cundus, participial, but denoting persist- 
ence of quality : as iracundus, 

atus, itus, iitus (from imaginary verb-stems), denote provided 
with : as galeatus, auritus, coriiutus. 

ter (-tris), timus (a superl. form) from noun-stems : as campester, 
maritimus ; ternus, from adverbs of time: as sempiternus, 
hesternus (from heri, old Tiesi, cf. yesterday). 

minus, mnus, mna (Gr. -fievog), participles, but no longer sig- 
nificant as such: as terminus, alumnus, autumnus, lamina, 
cerumna, femina. ^ 

ndus, the gerund-endiug, forms a few words of active meaning, as 
secundus, rotundus Xcf. volvendis annis). 



44: 2.] DERIVATION OF WORDS. 99 

2. Derivation of Verbs. Verbs of the third conju- 
gation, with irregular verbs and vowel-stems da, sta, are 
primitive. All others are either causative or denominative 
(formed from nouns). 

Note. — The consciousness of roots was lost in Latin, so that in 
forming the parts of verbs only stems are dealt with. Thus moneoy 
monui (not menui), from root meHj as in mens; ccedoj cecldi (not cecidi), 
from root {cad, as in cddo). Tor modifications of the root in verb-stems, 
see §§ 38, 30. The derivative suffix in the regular conjugations is 
original ya added either to the root, the present stem, in a, or the 
noun-stem. 

a. The following are the regular conjugational forms : — 

1. Verbs of the first conjugation (generally active) may be 
formed from almost any noun or adjective of the first or second 
declension, by changing the stem- vowel into the characteristic a. 
A few add this vowel to the stem, as vigilare, exsulare. 

2. A few verbs of the second conjugation are formed in like 
manner from noun-stems ; but most add the characteristic e to the 
root, and are intransitive or neuter in their meaning. 

3. A few u-stems simply add the characteristic of the third 
conjugation, becoming either active or intransitive, as acuo, fluo. 

4. Most verbs of the fourth conjugation add the characteristic i 
to the root, as scio, salio; many are formed from i- stems, as 
sitio, finio, polio (see § 34). 

b» The following are regular derivative suffixes : — 

SCO or isco (§ 36, i) inchoative, denoting the beginning of an 
action ; they imply a primitive verb-stem, which is sometimes 
found only in the perfect and supine stems. 

asso, esso, denote attempt to do a thing ; they are of the third 
conjugation in the present stem, and of the fourth in the per- 
fect and supine. 

Note. — These are probably denominative, from nouns originally in 
as (Latin es or us), but seem as if formed upon verb-roots. 

to, ito (first conjup^ation) denote frequent action, being added to 
the actual supine, or to another form of it, with a connecting 
vowel i, changing u to the characteristic a of the first con- 
jugation. 

illo (first conjugation) denotes feeble^ or trifling action like that of 
some simpler verb, but is formed from some real or supposed 
diminutive noun. 

urio (fourth conjuijation), added to the supine-base, denotes desire 
to do the act expressed by some simple verb ; but is formed 
from some noun of agency in tor (sor). Viso is a regular 
inherited desiderative of an earlier formation. 



♦^ ■ C I v^ 



100 DERIVATION OF WORDS. [44: 3. 

3. Compound Words, In compound words, either 

(1) the second part is merely added to the first ; (2) the first 

part modijies the second as an adjective ; (3) the first part is 

governed by the second as a verb ; or (4) a verb is modified 

by a preposition or adverb prefixed. In all, only the second 

part receives inflection. 

Note. — The Indo-European family had great power of forming 
compounds with mere stems. This power the Latin for the most part 
lost, as has English compared with German. Many compounds 
attempted by poets failed to become established in the language ; but 
there remain many traces of the old usage. 

The most usual compounds may be classed as follows : — 

a. Meanings added : as suovetaurilia, undecim. 

b. Noun with modifying adjective : as latifundium, pcBninsula^ 
tergeminus. 

c. Noun and Verb, as armiger, cornicen, mamfestus, carmtfex, 
mantele, 

d. Compound adjectives, in which the last word is a noun, the 
compound acquiring the meaning of possessed of the property de- 
noted, as alipes, magtianimus, concors, anceps (having a head at 
both ends), ohvius, multiformis, multiplex. 

e* Compounds of facio, with an actual or formerly existing 
verbal stem in e. These are causative in force, as consuefacio, 
calefacto. 

/. Adverbs (of manner) and Verb, which have grown together : 
as benedicoy satago. 

g. Verbs with Prepositions, usually having their original ad- 
verbial sense: as, ab, away; ex, oid. In those with circum, 
praeter, trans, and sometimes ad and per, the compound retains 
the force of the preposition. 

h. Verbs with the following inseparable Particles, which no 
longer appear as prepositions in Latin : amb (am, an), around ; 
dis, di, asunder (in two) ; por, forward ; red, re, back ; sed, se, 
apart. 



PART SECOND, 
USE OF WORDS (SYNTAX). 



46. Definitions. 

1. Sentence* A Sentence is a form of words which 
contains either a Statement, a Question, an Exclamation, 
or a Command. 

a. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a Declar- 
atory Sentence : as, puer venit, the hoy came. 

bn A sentence in the form of a Question is called an Inter- 
rogative Sentence : as, venitne puer, did the boy come f 

c. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an 
Exclamatory Sentence: as, quam celeriter venit! how fast 
he came! 

d* A sentence in the form of a Command is called an Impera- 
tive Sentence : as, veni, puer, ad me, come to me, hoy, 

2. Subject and JPredicate. The Subject of a sentence 
is the person or thing spoken of; the Predicate is that which 
is stated of the Subject. 

a. The Predicate may be either a neuter verb, a noun or 
adjective with the Copula (esse, fieri, &c.), or a Transitive verb 
with its Object. 

b. The verb esse, to he, when it connects an attribute with 
its subject, is called the Copula; otherwise, it is called the Sub- 
stantive Verb. 

Thus in the sentence sunt viri fortes, there are brave men, 
sunt is a substantive verb ; in viri sunt fortes, the men are 
brave, it is a copula. 

c« The Object of a verb is that on which its action is exerted : 
thus in the sentence pater vocat filium, the father calls his son, 
pater is subject, and filium object, of vocat. 

d. One or more words, essential to the grammatical complete- 
ness of a. sentence, may be unexpressed : this is called Ellipsis, 
and the sentence is called an elliptical sentence. 



102 DEFINITIONS. [45: 3, 4, 5. 

3. Modification. The Subject or Predicate of a sentence 
may be modified by single words, or by a phrase or clause. 
The modifying word may itself be modified in the same way. 

d, A single modifying word is generally either an Adjective, 
an Adverb, an Appositive (§ 46), or the oblique ease of a Noun. 
Thus in the sentence puer formosus venit, a handsome hoy 
came, the adjective formosus modifies the subject puer ; in the 
sentence oeleriter venit, lie came quickly, the adverb celeriter 
modifies the predicate venit. 

&. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word 
to which it belongs : thus in the sentence video pueri patrem, 
I see the hoy'' s father, the genitive pueri limits patrem. 

4. I^hrase. A Phrase is a group of words, without sub- 
ject or predicate of its own, which may be used as an 
Adjective or Adverb. 

Thus in the sentence puer erat eximiae formae, he was a 
hoy of remarkahle beauty, the words eximiae formae are used 
for the adjective formosus (or formosissimus), and are called 
an Adjective Phrase ; in the sentence magna celeritate 
venit, he came with great speed, the words magna celeritate are 
used for the adverb celeriter (or celerrime) , and are called an 
Adverbial Phrase. 

5. Clause. A Clause is a group of words forming part 
of a sentence, and having a subject and predicate of its own. 

Thus in the sentence puer qui heri venit formosus erat, 
the hoy ivho came yesterday was handsome,- the words qui heri 
venit are a Relative Clause; in the sentence puer si eras 
veniat acceptus sit, if the boy should come to-morrow he woidd 
he ivelcome, the words si eras veniat, are a Conditional 
Clause. 

a. When a Clause is used as the Subject or Object of a verb, 
it is called a Substantive Clause (see § 70). 

h. When a clause is used to modify the subject or predicate of 
a sentence, it is called a Subordinate Clause, Subordinate 
Clauses are Conditional, Temporal, Causal, Consecutive, and 
Final, like the conjunctions which introduce them (§ 43, i, 6). 

c. When two or more clauses in the same sentence are inde- 
pendent of one another, they are said to be Coordinate, 

d. Any clause introduced by a Relative is called a Relative 
Clause ; when used simply by way of explanation, and not other- 
wise connected with the form of the sentence, it is .called an 
Intermediate Clause (§ 66). 



45; 46.] SUBJECT AND predicate: nouns. 103 

e, A clause expressing the purpose of an action is called a 
Final Clause: one expressing its result is called a Consecutive 
Clause {^^e §§ 64, 65). 

Note. — In English, a Consecutive clause is introduced by the 
phrase so that ; a Final clause by the phrase in order that, 

f* A clause containing a condition^ introduced by if or some 
equivalent (§ 59), is called a Conditional Clause, A sentence 
modified by a conditional clause is called.a Conditional Sentence. 

Note. — Observe that these classes are not exclusive, but that a 
single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative 
clause may be subordinate, conditional, or intermediate ; and two 
subordinate clauses may be coordinate with each other. 

6. Connectives. Sentences or coordinate clauses are 
regularly connected by means of Conjunctions; but fre- 
quently in Latin — very rarely in English — sentences are 
connected by Relatives, 

In this case, the relative is often best translated in English by 
a conjunction with a demonstrative : as, quo cum venisset, and 
wJieti he had come there; quae cum ita slnt, but since these 
things are so (§ 43, 3, k), 

7. Agreement. A word is said to Agree with another 
when it is required to be in the same gender ^ number j case, or 
person. 

When a word takes the gender or number of some other word 
implied in that with which it should agree, this use is called 
Syxesis, or constructio ad sensum, 

8. Government. A word is said to Govern another, 
when it requires the latter to be in a particular case, 

I, Subject and Predicate. 

46. Op Nouns. 

A noun used to describe another, and meaning the 

same thing, agrees with it in Case : as, 

Servius rex, Servius the king, 
ad urbem Solos, to the city Soli, 
spes nostra Cicero, Cicero our hope, 
homo nata fuerat, she had been born human. 



104 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [46: I, 2. 

1. When the noun thus used is in the same part of the 
sentence (subject or predicate) it is called an appositive, and 
the use is called apposition. * 

2. When the noun is used to form a predicate with esse 
or a verb of similar meaning, it is called a predicate-nom- 
inative (or accusative as the case may be). 

externus timor, maximum concordiie vinculum, jungebat ani- 
mos (Liv. ii. 39), fear of the foreigner^ the chief bond of har- 
mony, united hearts, [Here both nouns belong to the subject^] 

quattuor hie, primum omen, equos vidi (yEn. iii. 537), I saw 
here four horses, the first omen, [Here both nouns are in the 
j[>redicate.^ 

Ancum Marcium regem populus creavit (Liv. i. 32), the people 
made Ancus Marcius king. [Here regem is called the comple- 
mentary accusative.^ 

consules creantur Caesar et Servilius (B. C iii. \\ Ccesar and 
Servilius are made consuls. [Here consules is predicate-noini- 
native after creantur.] 

litteras Graecas senex didici (Cat. M. 8), I learned Greek when 
an old man. [Here senex is in apposition with the subject of 
didici, expressing the time, conditio?!, &c., of the act.] 

Gnaeus et Publius Scipiones, the Scipios, Cneius and Publius- 
[Here the appositive is plural, as referring to more than one 
subject.] 

gloria virtutem tanquam umbra sequitur (Tusc. i. 45). [Here 
the appositive is introduced by way of comparison. \ 

a. The appositive will agree in gender when it can ; sometimes 
also in number: as, 

Aristseus, olivse inventor (N. D. iii. 18), Aristceus, discoverer of 

the olive. 
oleae Minerva inventrix (G. i. 18), Minerva, inventress of the 

olive. 
quia sequuntur naturam, optimam ducem (Lsel. 19), because 

they follow nature, the best guide. 
omnium doctrinarum inventrices Athenas (De Or. i. 4), 

Athe7is, discoverer of all learning. 

h* A common noun in apposition with a locative is put in the 
Ablative, with or without the preposition in : as, 

Antiochise, celebri quondam urbe (Arch. 3), at Antioch, once 

a famous city. 
Albae constiterunt in urbe munita (Phil. iv. 2), they halted at 

Alba, a fortified tow7t. 



47: 1,2.] ADJECTIVES. 105 

c. The genitive is used in apposition with possessives, taking 
the gender and number of the implied subject : as, 

in nostro omnium fletu (Mil. 34), amid the tears of us all, 
ex Anniana Milonis domo (Att. iv. 3), out of An7iius Milo's 
house. 

Note. — The proper appositive is sometimes put in the Genitive. 
See § 50, i, /. 

47. Of Adjectives. 

Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number^ and 

case. This rule applies also to adjective pronouns and 

participles. 

vir fortis, a brave man. 

cum ducentis militibus, with 200 men, 

consularia munera, the duties of consid. 

hac lege, by this laio, 

uno interfecto, one being slain. 

Kemark. — The adjective may be either attributive ov predi- 
cate. An attributive adjective simply qualifies the noun without 
the intervention of a verb ; a predicate adjective is connected 
with its noun by esse, or a verb of similar meaning, expressed or 
implied. 

An adjective may also be used in apposition like a noun : as, 

Hortensium vivum amavi (Off. iii. 18), / loved Horte?istus 
ivheft living, 

a. With two or more nouns the adjective is plural (also, 
rarely, when they are connected with cum) : as, 

Nisus et Euryalus primi (^n. v. 394), Nisus a7id Euryalus first, 
Juba cum Labieno capti (B. Afr. 52), Juba and Labienus were 
taken, 

2. When nouns are of different genders, an attributive 
adjective agrees with the nearest : as, 

multse operse ac laboris, of much trouble and toil. 
vita moresque mei, my life and character. 

si res, si vir, si tempus ullum dignum fuit (Mil. 7), if any 
thing, if any mail, if aiiy time, was fit, 

a. A predicate adjective may follow the same rule if the sub- 
jects form one connected idea : as, 

factus est strepitus et admurmuratio (Verr. i. 15), a 7ioise of 
asse?it was made, ^^ 



106 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [47: 2, 3. 

h» Generally, a predicate adjective will be masculine, if nouns 
of different genders mean living beings ; neuter, if things without 
life: as, 

uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi (Li v. ii. 40), //len his wife and 

children embraced him, 
labor (m.) voluptasque (iS'.) societate quadam inter se naturali 

sunt juncta (n.) (id. v. 4), labor and delight are bound 

together by a certain statural alliance. 

€• Abstract nouns of the same gender may have a neuter adjec- 
tive : as, 

stultitia et temeritas et injustitia . . . sunt fugienda (Fin. iii. 11), 
yblly, rashness, and injustice must be shunned, 

pax et Concordia jactata sunt (Tac. Hist. ii. 20), peace and 
harmony were talked of. 

d, A masculine or femine adjective may belong (by Synesis) to 
a noun of different gender or number, when the existence of per- 
sons is implied : as, 

duo milia relicti (Liv. xxxvii. 39), two thousand were left* 

pars certare parati (^n. v. 108), a part ready to contend. 

magna pars raptse (Liv. i. 9), a large part [of the women] 
were seized. 

colonise aliquot deductse, Prisci Latini appellati (id. i. 3), sev- 
eral colo7iies were led out [of men] called Old Latins. 

e. An adjective pronoun agrees in gender with a word in ap- 
position rather than with its antecedent : as, 

rerum caput hoc erat, hie fons (Hor. Ep. i. 17), this was the 
head of things, this the source. 

eam sapientiam interpretantur quam adhuc mortalis nemo est 
consecutus [for id . . . quod] (La^l. 5), they explain that 
[thing] to be wisdom which no man ever yet attained. 

/. Occasionally, an adjective takes the gender of a partitive 

genitive : as, 

velocissimum animalium delphinus est (Plin.), the dolphin is 
the swiftest of creatures. 

S. Adjectives are often used as nouns, the masculine to 
denote men^ and the feminine women : as, 

omnes, oXl men, oV everybody ; majores, ancestors ; veteres, the 
ancients ; barbari, barbarians ; amicus, a friend. 

instinctu purpuratorum (Curt. iii. 9), at the iiistigation of the 

courtiers [those clad in purple], 
iniquus noster (Plane. 2.), our foe. 
didicit jam dives avarus laudare disertos (Juv. vii. 30), the rich 

miser has now lear?ied to flatter the eloque?it. 



47:3,4] ADJECTIVES. 107 

Note. — The singular of adjectives in this use is more rare ; the 
plural is very frequent, and may be used of any adjective or participle, 
to denote those in general described by it. 

a. This is especially frequent with possessives : as, 

nostri, our coufitrytnen, or 7neft of our party, 

Sullani, the veterans of Sulla's army- 

suos continebat (B. C. i. 15), he held his men iii check. 

b* The demonstratives is, ille, &c., used in this way, have 
nearly the force of personal pronouns. They are often thus used 
in apposition with a noun, or a clause : as, 

vincula, eaque sempiterna (Cat. iv. 4), chains, a?id that for 

ever. 
exspectabam tuas litteras, idque cum multis (Fam. x. 14), /, 

-with ma7iy others, am expecting your letter. 

c On the other hand, a noun is sometimes used as an adjective, 

and may be qualified by an adverb (compare § 16, 3, e) : as, 

victor exercitus, the victorious army. 

servum pecus, a servile troop, 

admodum puer, quite a boy. 

magis vir, more of a man. 

fautar inepte (Hor.), a stupid admirer. 

4. A neuter adjective may be used as a noun — 

a. In the singular, to denote either a single object or an 
abstract quality : as, 

rapto vivere, to live by plunder. 

in arido, on dry ground. 

honestum, «;/ hotiorable act, or honor (as a quality). 

&. In the plural, to signify objects in general having the quality 
denoted, and hence the abstract idea : as, 

honesta, honorable deeds (in general), or honor (in the ab- 
stract), 
omnium ignarus, ignorant of all. 
justis solutis, the due rites bei7ig paid. 

c. In apposition, or as predicate, to a noun of different gen- 
der: as, 

turpitudo pejus est quam dolor (Tusc. ii. 13), disgrace is worse 

than pain. 
labor bonum non est (Sen. Ep. 31), toil is no good thing. 

d. In agreement with an infinitive or a substantive clause : as, 

aliud est errare Caesarem nolle, aliud nolle misereri (Lig. 5), 
it is one thing to be unwilling that Ccesar should err, another 
to be unvjilliiig that he should pity* 



108 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [47: 5, 6, 7. 

Remark. — The neuter of an adjective is ordinarily used as a 
noun only in the nominative and accusative : as, 

omnia, all things {everything) ; but, omnium rerum, of all 
things (omnium is usually of all persons) \ — loquitur de 
omnibus rebus, he talks about everything (de omnibus, 
about everybody), 

5. Adjectives denoting source or possession may be used 

for the genitive : as, 

Pompeiana acies, Pomfeys line. 

video herilem filium (Ter.), 1 spy master's son. 

ses alienum, another's money, i.e. debt. 

a. Possessives are thus regularly used for the genitive of the 
personal pronouns : as, 

domus mea, my house ; nostra patria, our country. 

h. A possessive in any case may have a genitive in apposition 

(§46,c):as, 

mea solius causa, ybr my sake. 

nostra omnium patria, the country of us all. 

€• An adjective is occasionally thus used for the objective geni- 
tive (§ 50, 3, h) : as, 

metus hostilis (Jug. 41), fear of the enemy. 

feminea in poena (Virg.), in pimishiiig a ivo7nan. 

periculo invidise meae (Cat. ii. 2), at the risk of odium against 

me. 
studiosus csedis ferinae (Ov. M. vii. 675), eager to slaughter 

game. 

6. An adjective, with the subject or object, is often used 
to qualify the act^ having the force of an adverb : as, 

primus venit, he came first (was the first to come). 
nullus dubito, I no way doubt. 
Iseti audiere, they were glad to hear, 

patre invito discessit, he departed against his father's wishes. 
erat Romae frequens (Rose. Am. 6), he was often at .Rofne. 
serus in caelum redeas (Hor. Od. i. 2), mafst thou return late 
to heaven. 

7. When two qualities of an object are compared, both 
adjectives (or adverbs) are in the comparative : as, 

longior quam latior acies erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line was longer 
than it was broad (or, 7'ather long thaft broad). 



47; 48.] adjectives: relatives. 109 

a# But not where magis is used : as, 

clari magis quam honesti (Jug. 8), more renowned ilian honor- 
able. 

h. A comparative with a positive, or even two positives, may 
be thus connected by quam (a rare and less elegant use) : as, 

vehementius quam caute (Agric. 4), with more fury than good 

heed, 
Claris majoribus quam vetustis (Ann. iv. 61), of a family more 

famous than old, 

8. Superlatives denoting order and succession often desig- 
nate not what ohjectj but what part of it, is meant : as, 

summus mons, the top of the hill, 

in ultima platsea, at the end of the avenue. So, 

prior actio, the earlier part of an actiojt. 

Also, medius, midst ; ceterus, othei^ ; reliquus, remaining : as, 

reliqui captivi, the rest of the prisoners. 

in colle medio (B. G. i. 24), on the middle of the hill, 

inter ceteram planitiem (Jug. 92), in a region elsewhere level. 

Similarly, sera nocte, late at night; nos omnes, all of us 
(§ 50, 2). 

9. The expressions, alter . . . alter, alius . . . alius (as 

also the adverbs derived from them), may be used recipro- 

cally ; or may imply^ a change of predicate as well as of 

subject : as, 

hi fratres alter alterum amant, these brothers love each other, 
alius aliud petit, one man seeks o?ie thing, one another* 
alius alia ex navi, out of different ships, 

alius alia via civitatem auxerunt (Liv. i. 21), they enlarged the 
State each in his own way. 

For the use of Adjectives as Adverbs, see § 1(5, 3,/. 
For the ablative used adverbially with Comparatives, see 
§ 54, 6, e. 

48. Of Relatives. 

A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in gender and 

number ; but its ca^e depends on the construction of 

the clause in which it stands : as, 

puer qui venit, the hoy who came ; liber quern legis, the book 
you are reading ; via qua ambulat, the way he walks in. 



110 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [48: I, 2, 3. 

Note. — A Relative is properly an adjective pronoun, of which the 
proper noun (the Antecedent) is usually omitted. The full construc- 
tion would require a corresponding demonstrative, to which the relative 
refers. Hence, relatives serve two uses : — 1. As Nouns in their own 
clause ; 2. As Connectives, and are thus often equivalent to a demon- 
strative and conjunction combined (see § 69). Tlie connective force is 
not original, but is developed from a demonstrative or indefinite 
meaning; the relative and the antecedent clause being originally 
co-ordinate. 

1 . A Verb having a relative as its subject takes the person 
of the expressed or implied antecedent : as, 

adsum qui feci (^n. ix. 427), ^ere am I who did it, 

2. A relative generally agrees in gender with a noun 
(appositive) in its own clause, rather than with an antecedent 
of different gender : as, 

mare etiam quern Neptunum esse dicebas (N. D. iii. 20), the 
sea, too, -which you said was Neptune. 

a. A relative may (rarely) by Attraction agree with its ante- 
cedent in case: as, 

si aliquid agas eorum quorum consu^sti (Fam. v. 14), if you do 
soinething of -what you are used to, 

h* A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied 
antecedent : as, 

quartu'm genus . . . qui premuntur (Cat. ii. 10), a fourth class, 

that are sinking. 
unus ex eo numero qui parati erant (Jug. 35), one of the number 

[of those] -who were ready. 
conjuravere pauci. . . de qua [conjuratione] dicam (Sail. C. 18), 

a few have conspired . . . of which [conspiracy] I will speak, 

3. The antecedent noun sometimes appears in both clauses ; 
usually only in the one that precedes ; sometimes it is wholly 
omitted: thus — 

a. The noun may be repeated in the relative clause : as, 

loci natura erat haec quern locum nostri delegerant (B. G. ii. 18), 
the nature of the- ground which our men had chosen was this, 

h. The noun may appear only in the relative clause : as, 

quas res in consulatu nostro gessimus attigit hie versibus 
(Arch. 11), he has touched i?i verse the things which we did 
in our co7isulship. 

urbem quam statuo vestra est (^n. i. 573), yours is the city 
which I found. 



I 



48:3>4)5-] relatives. Ill 

In such cases the demonstrative is or hie usually stands in the 
antecedent clause : as, 

quae pars civitatis calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea 
princeps poenas persolvit (B. G. i. 12), that part of the State 
ivhich had brought disaster on the Roman people was the first 
to pay the penalty. 

Remark. — In a sentence of this class, the relative clause in 
Latin usually stands first; but, in translating, the noun should be 
transferred, in its proper case, to the antecedent clause, as in the 
example just quoted. 

c. The antecedent noun may be omitted : as, 

qui decimae legionis aquilam ferebat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] 

-who bore the eagle of the tenth legioii. 
qui cognoscerent misit (id. i. 21), he sent men to reconnoitre. 

d, A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) agreeing 
with the antecedent may stand in the relative clause : as, 

vasa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. iv. 27), those 
7nost beautiful vessels ivhich he had seen at his house, 

6. The phrase id quod or quae res is used (instead of quod 
alone) : to relate to an idea or group of words before expressed as, 

[obtrectatum est] Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio.'^ an utrique — 
id quod est verius? (Manil. 19), an affront is offered shall I 
say to Gabinius or Pompey P or — which is truer — to both P 

4. A relative often stands at the beginning of a clause or 
sentence, where in English a demonstrative must be used : as, 

quae cum ita sint, since these things are so. 

quorum quod simile factum.? (Cat. iv. 8), what ever happened 

like this f 
qui illius in te amor fuit (Fam. iv. 5), such was his love for you. 

5. A Relative Adverb is often equivalent to the relative 
pronoun with a preposition : as, 

quo (= ad quern), to whom ; unde (= a quo), from whom, &c. : as, 

apud eos quo se contulit (Verr. iv. 18), among those to whotn he 

resorted. 
qui eum necasset unde ipse natus esset (Rose. Am. 26), o?ie 

who should have slain his own father. 

A similar use is found with the demonstratives eo, inde, &c : as, 

eo imponit vasa (Jug. 75), upon them [the beasts] he puts the 
baggage. 



112 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [49: I. 



49. Verbs. 

A Verb agrees with its subject-nominative in num- 
her and person ; as, 
ego statuo, I resolve ; oratio est habita, the plea was spoken. 

Remark. — The verb in the periphrastic forms sometimes agrees 
in gender and number with the predicate, or with a noun in 
apposition: as, 

non omnis error stultitia est dicenda (Parad. vi. 3), not every 

error should be called folly, 
Corinthus lumen Grsecise exstinctum est, Corinth the light of 

Greece is put out, 
delicise meae Dicearchus disseruit (Tusc. i. 31), my pet Dicear- 

chus discoursed, 

1. Two or more singular subjects take a verb in the 
plural ; also, rarely, when one is in the ablative with cum : 
as, 

pater et avus mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are 
dead, 

dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liv. xxi. 60), the gen- 
eral and several chiefs are taken, 

a. When the subjects are of different persons, the verb will be 
in the first and the second rather than the third : as, 

si tu et Tullia valetis ego et Cicero valemus (Fam. xiv. 5), if 
you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well. 

5. If the subjects are joined by disjunctives, or if they are con- 
sidered as a single whole, the verb is singular : as, 

neque fides neque jusjurandum neque ilium misericordiarepres- 
sit (Ter. Ad.), not faith nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked 
him, 

Senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fam. v. 8), the Roman 
Senate and people understand, 

c, A collective noun — also such distributives as quisque, 
every ; uterque, each — may take a plural verb : as, 

pars prsedas agebant (Jug. 32), a part brought in booty. 
suum quisque habeant quod suum est (Plaut. Cure), let every 
one keep his own. 

This^ is most common in poetry. 



49: 1,2.. 50.] CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. 113 

d» When the action of the verb belongs to the subjects separ- 
ately j it may agree with one and be understood with the others : as, 

intercedit M. Antonius et Cassius tribuni plebis (B. C. i. 2), 
Antony and Casszus, tribunes of the feople, interpose. 

2. The Subject of a finite verb is in the nominative. 

Defin. — A Finite Verb is a verb in any mood except the In- 
finitive. 

a. The personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless 
emphatic: thus, 

loquor, / speak ; ego loquor, it is I that speak. 

b» An indefinite subject is often omitted : as, 

dicunt (ferunt, perhibent), tliey say. 

€• The verb is sometimes omitted in certain phrases : as, 

quorsum haec [spectant] .'* w/iat does this aim at f 

ex ungue leonem [cognosces], j^^«w/7/ know a lion by his claw. 

The indicative and infinitive of esse are most frequently omitted. 
(For the Historical Infinitive, see § 57, 8, A.) 

II. Construction of Cases. 

Note. — The Oblique Cases of nouns express their relations to other 
words in the sentence. Originally, the family of languages to which 
Latin belongs had at least seven cases, besides the vocative, all ex- 
pressing different relations. Of these the Locative and Instrumental 
cases were lost, and their functions divided among the others. 

The names of the cases, except the Ablative, are of Greek origin. 
The name genitive — Gr. 7eviKT|, from -yevos — refers, originally, to the 
class to which anything belongs. The dative — 8oTtKTJ — is the case 
of giving. The name accusative is a mistranslation of aiTiaTiKifj, signi- 
fying that which is effected or caused (alrCa). 

50. Genitive* 

A noun used to limit or define another, and not 
meaning the same thing, is put in the genitive. 

Note. — This relation is most frequently expressed in English by 
the preposition of. The genitive seems originally to have meant 
that from which something springs; hence, that to which it belongs, From 
this signification most of its others may be deduced. 



114 CONSTRUCTION OP CASES. [50: I. 

1. Subjective Genitive* The Genitive is used to denote 
the Author, Owner, .Source, and (with an adjective) Measure 
or Quality : as, 

libri Ciceronis, if/ze boohs of Cicero* 
Csesaris horti, Ccesar's gardens, 
culmen tecti, the roof of the hoicse. 

a* For the genitive of possession a possessive adjective is often 
used, — regularly for that of the personal pronouns : as, 
liber meus, 7ny book, 
alien a pericula, other men's dangers, 
SuUana tempera, the times of Sulla, 

b» The noun limited is understood in a few expressions : as, 

Castoris [aedes], the [temple] of Castor, 

Hectoris Andromache, Hector's [wife] Andromache. 

€• The genitive is often in the predicate, connected with its 

noun by a verb, like a predicate appositive : as, 

hsec domus est patris mei, this house is my father's. 

tutelae nostrae [eos] duximus (Liv.), we held them to be in our 

protection. 
Thrasybuli facta lucri fecit (Nep. viii. i), he made profit of the 

deeds of Thrasybulus,, 
Tyros mare dicionis suae fecit (Curt. iv. 4), Tyre brought the 

sea under her sway, 
hominum non causarum toti erant (Liv. iii. 36), they belonged 

wholly to the meti, not to the cause. 

d* A phrase or clause often stands for the limited noun; this is 
most frequent with the genitive of adjectives or abstract nouns : as, 

neque sui judici [erat] decernere (B. C. i. 35), it was not for 

his judgment to decide. 
timidi est optare necem (Ov. M. iv. 15), it is for the coward to 

wish for death. 

Remark. — The genitive of an adjective (especially of the third 
declension) is thus used instead of the neuter nominative : as, 

sapientis {not sapiens] est pauca loqui, it is wise [the part of a 
wise man] to say little. 

The neuter of possessives is used in the same way : as, 

mentiri non est meum, it is not for me to lie. 
humanum \_for hominis] est errare, it is man's to err. 

€• A genitive may denote the substance of which a thing con- 
sists (a modified form of the idea of source) : as, 

talentum auri, a talent of gold, 

flumina lactis, rivers of milk. 

navis auri (compare Part. Gen.), a shipload of gold. 



50: 1,2.] GENITIVE. 115 

/. A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in 

apposition: as, 

nomen insaniae, the word madness, 
oppidum Antiochiae, the city of Antioch, 

g* The genitive is used to denote quality, but only when the 

quality is modified by an adjective (usually an indefinite one) : as, 

* vir summae virtutis, a man of the highest courage, 
magnae est deliberationis, // is an affair of great deliberation, 
magni formica laboris, the ant^ [a creature] of great toil* 

So ejus modi, of that sort, 

(Compare the Ablative of Quality, § 54, 7.) 

h» The genitive (of quality), with numerals, is used to define 

measures of lengthy depths &c. : as, 

fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [depth], 
murus sedecim pedum, a wall sixteeji feet [high], 
minor nulla erat duum milium amphorum (Fam. xii. 15), none 
held less than 2000 jars. 

i* Certain adjectives of Quantity — as magni, pluris, and the 
like — are used in the genitive to express indefinite value, (Also 
the nouns nihili, flocci, nauci, pili, pensi, terunci, assis, see 
Ablative of Price, § 54, 8.) 

Remark. — The genitive is often followed by the ablatives 
causa, gratia, for the sake of; ergo, because of; and the inde- 
clinable ins tar, like. 

2, I*artitive Genitive* Words denoting a part are fol- 
lowed by the genitive of the whole to which the part belongs. 
Partitive words are the following : — 

a* Nouns or Pronouns : as, 

pars militum, ^art of the soldiers, 

quis nostrum, which ofusf {but nos omnes, all of us). 
nihil erat reliqui, there was 7iothing left, 

vastatur agri [id] quod . . . (Liv. i. 14), so much of the land is 
wasted as, d:c, 

b* Numerals, Comparatives, and Superlatives : as, 

alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls, 
unus tribunorum, one of the tribunes. 

plurimum totius Galliae equitatu valet (B. G. v. 3), is strongest 
in cavalry of all Gaul. 

c Neuter adjectives and pronouns used as nouns : as, 

tantum spati, so much space. 

aliquid nummorum, a few fence. 

id loci {or locorum), that spot of grou7id. 



116 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [50: 2. 

id temporis, at that time. 

plana urbis, the level farts of the totvii, 

quid novi, what 7iews P 

Remark. — Of adjectives of the third declension the genitive 
is only rarely used in this way : thus, 

nihil novi (gen.)? nothing new ; but 

nihil memorabile (nom.), nothing worth mention. 

d* Adverbs, especially of Quantity and Place : as, 

satis pecuniae, tnoney enough. 

parum oti, not much ease. 

ubinam gentium sumus, where in the world are we P 

inde loci, next in order. 

istuc 3equi bonique, to that degree of equity and goodness. 

turn temporis, at that j)oi7it of time. 

eo miseriarum (Sail.), to that ;p itch of tnisery. 

e. The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive 
after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case : as, 

sequimur te sancte deorum (^n. iv. 576), we follow thee, O 

holy deity. 
nigrse lanarum (Plin. H. N. viii. 48), black wools. 
electi juvenum (Liv. xxx. 9), the choice of the you7ig inen. 

Remark. — !• Cardinal numbers, with quidam, a certain one, 
more commonly, other words rarely, take the ablative with e (ex) 
or de, instead of the genitive : as, 

unus ex tribunis, 07ie of the tribunes. 

minumus ex illis (Jug. 11), the yoimgest of the7n. 

medius ex tribus (ib.), the 7nidst of the three. 

2. With nouns uterque generally agrees as an adjective ; but 
with pronouns it always takes a genitive : as, 

uterque consul, both the consuls. 
uterque nostrum, both of us. 

3. Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any- 
thing — as omnes, all; quot, how many — take a case in agree- 
ment, and not the partitive genitive : as, 

nos omnes, all of us. 
qui omnes, all of whom. 

quot sunt hostes, how 7nany of the enemy are there f 
cave inimicos qui multi sunt, beware of your e7ieinies, of who7n 
you have 77iany. 

So when no others are thought of, although such exist : as, 

multi milites, 77ia7iy of the soldiers, 
nemo Romanus, 7tot one Ro7nan. 



50: 3-] GENITIVE. 117 

^ 4. Rarely two genitives are used with one noun : as, 

animi m,ultarum rerum percursio (Tusc. iv. 13), tJie mind^s 
traverst7ig of mafiy things* 

3. Objective Genitive* With many nouns and adjec- 
tives implying action^ the genitive is used to denote the object. 

Note. — This is an extension of the idea of belonging to; as in the 
phra'se odium Caesaris, hate of Caesar, the hate in a passive sense 
belongs to Caesar, though in its active sense he is the object of it. 

a* Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the genitive 

of the object : as, 

desiderium oti, longing for rest. 

vacatio militiae, a respite of military service. 

gratia benefici, gratitude for a kindness. 

fuga malorum, refuge from disaster, 

laudator temporis acti, a praiser of the past. 

injuria mulierum Sabinarum (Liv.), the wrong done to the 

Sabine 'W07nen. 
memoria nostri tua (Fam. xiii. 1^)^ your memory of us. 
consensio divinarum humanarumque rerum (Lael. 6), the har- 

mo7ty of divi?ze a?id human thiiigs. 
vim suorum pro suo periculo defendebant (B.C. iii. no), they 

parried the attack on their comrades as if it ivere their own 

peril. 

Occasionally possessive adjectives are used in the same way (see 
§ 47, 5, c). 

h* Adjectives requiring an object of reference {relative adjec- 
tives) govern the genitive. 

These are — 1. Adjectives denoting desire, knoioledge, memory, 
fulness, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites ; 2. Verbals in 
ax; 3. Participles in ns when used to denote a disposition arnd 
not a particular act, so that they become adjectives : as, 

avidus \3.udis, greedy of praise. 

fastidiosus literarum, disdainifig letters. 

juris peritus, skilled in law. 

habetis ducem memorem vestri oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 9), j/6>/^ 

have a leader who thi?tks of you a?id forgets himself. 
plena consiliorum inania verborum (De Or. i. ^), full of wis- 

dofn, void of words. 
rationis et orationis expertes (Off. i. 16), devoid of reason and 

speech. 
virtutis compos (id.), possessed of virtue. 
paternorum bonorum exheres (De Or. i. 38), ousted from his 

father's estate. 
rei capitalis affinis (2 Verr. ii. 43), accessory to a capital crime. 
justum ac tenacem propositi virum (Hor. Od. iii. 3), a ma7ijust 

and steadfast to his purpose. 



118 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [50: 3. 

si quern tui amantiorem cognovisti (Q^ Fr. ix. i), if you have 

k?iown any more fo?id of you, 
multitudo insolens belli (B. C. ii. 36), a crowd unused to war. 
sitiens sanguinis, thirsting for blood. But, 
Tiberius sitiens sanguinem (Tac), Tiberius [then] thirsting 
for blood. 

€• Some other adjectives of similar meaning occasionally take 
the genitive ; and the poets and late writers use almost any adjec- 
tive with a genitive of specif cation : as, 

callidus rei militaris (Tac. H. ii. 31), skilled in soldiership. 

pecuniae liberales (Sail. C 7), lavish of mo7iey. 

virtutum sterile seculum (id. i. 3), « ce?itury barren in virtue. 

pauper aquarum (Hor.), scant of vjater. 

prodigus seris (id.), a spendthrift of wealth. 

notus animi, of ktiown bravery. 

fessi rerum (Virg.), weary of toil. 

Iseta laborum (id.), glad of work. 

modicus voluptatis, moderate i7i pleasure. 

integer vitse scelerisque purus (Hon), upright in life, and 

clear of guilt. 
docilis modorum (id.), teachable i?t measures. 

Remark. — Animi (strictly a locative, plural animis), is added 
to adjectives oi feeling : as, 

seger animi, sick at heart. 
confusus animi, disturbed in spirit. 

d» A few adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging — requir- 
ing the dative as such — take the possessive genitive : these are, 
aequalis, affinis, communis, finitimus, par, propinquus, pro- 
prius (regularly), similis, vicinus. 

Remark. — One noun limiting another is regularly used in the 
genitive, and not with a preposition, — prepositions being origi- 
nally adverbs, and requiring a verb. Sometimes, however, one 
noun has another connected with it by a preposition. This hap- 
pens with nouns of action, feeling, and motion ; some relations of 
place to or in ivJiich or from which (including origin) ] accompani- 
ment, &c. : as, 

odium in Caesarem (or odium Caesaris), hate of Ccesar. 

merita erga me (Cic), services to me. 

auxilium adversus inimicos (id.), help agaifist enefuies, 

reditus in caelum (id.), retur?i to heave7t. 

impetus in me (id.), attack 07i me. 

excessus e vita (id.), departure from life. 

e prcelio nuntius, a messe?zger from the battle. 

castra ad Bagradam (Caes.), cainp 7tear the Bagrada. 

invidia ob scelera (Sail.), odiu7n for his cri7nes. So, 

domum reditionis spes (id.), the hope of returni7ig ho7ne. 



50: 4] GENITIVE. 119 

4. Genitive after Verbs* The genitive is used as the 
object of several classes of Verbs. 

a* Verbs of Remembering, Forgetting, and Reminding, take 
the genitive of the object when they are used of a continued state 
of mind, but the accusative when used of a single act: as, * 

pueritiae memoriam recordari (Arch, i.), to recall the metnory 
of childhood. 

animus meminit praeteritorum (Div. i. 30), the soul remembers 
the fast. 

venit mihi in mentem illius diei, I bethought me of that day, 

obliviscere caedis atque incendiorum (Cat.), turn your mi7id 
from slaughter a7id co7iflagrations. 

bona praeterita non meminerunt (Fin. ii. 20), they do not re- 
member f)ast blessings. 

memineram Paullum (Cat. M. 2), I remembered Paulus. 

memini etiam quae nolo (Fin. ii. ZZ)^ I remeinber even what I 
■would not* 

totam causam oblitus est (Brut. 60), he forgot the whole case* 

Remark. — The above distinction is unimportant as to verbs of 
reminding, which take the genitive except of neuter pronouns : as, 
hoc te admoneo, I warn you of this. The accusative is always 
used of a person or thing remembered by an eye-witness. Recorder 
is almost always construed with an accusative, or with a phrase or 
clause. 

&• Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting, take the 

genitive of the charge oy penalty : as, 

arguit me furti, he accuses me of theft. 

peculatus damnatus (pecuniae publicae damnatus) (Flac. 18), 

condemned for embezzlement. 
capitis damnatus, condemned to death. 

Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are — 
capitis (damnare capitis, to sentence to death) ; 
majestatis, treason (crime against the dignity of the State); 
repetundarum, extortion (lit. of an action for claiming back 

money wrongfully taken) ; 
voti (damnatus or reus voti, bound to the payment of one's 

vow, i.e. successful in one's effort). 

Remark. — The crime may be expressed by the ablative with 
de ; the punishment by the ablative alone : as, 

de vi et majestatis damnati (Phil, i.), condemned of assault and 
treason. 

vitia autem hominum atque fraudes damnis, ignominiis, vin- 
culis, verberibus, exiliis, morte damnantur (De Or. i 43), 
but the vices aiid crimes of men are punished with fines ^ dis- 
honor^ chains^ scourging^ exile, death. 

But, inter sicarios accusare (defenderej, to accuse of murder. 



120 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [50: 4. 

€• Many verbs of Emotion take the genitive of the object which 
excites the feeling (Gen. of source). These are — 

1. Verbs of pity, as misereor and miseresco : as, 

miserescite regis (^En. viii. 573)1 p^'^y the king, 
miserere animi non digna ferentis (id. ii. 'i-^\)t pity a soul that 
endures tuivjorthy things. 

But miseror, commiseror, bewail, take the accusative. 

2. The impersonals miseret, piget, poenitet, pudet, taedet 

(or pertaesum est), which take also the accusative of the person 

affected (§ 39, 2) : as, 

hos homines infamiae suae neque pudet neque taedet (Verr. i. 
12), these men are neither ashamed nor iveary of their dis- 
ho7ior, 

Kemark. — An infinitive or clause may be used with these verbs 
instead of the genitive of a noun : as, 

me poenitet haec fecisse, / repent of having done this. 
Sometimes they are used personally : as, 

nonne te haec pudent (Ter. Ad.), do not these things shame 

you f 

d* The impersonals interest and refert, it concerns, takes the 

genitive of the person affected, — the subject of the verb being a 

neuter pronoun or a substantive clause : as, 

Clodi intererat Milonem perire (Mil. 21), it ivas the interest of 
Clodius that Milo should die. 

But instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the possessive is 

used in the ablative singular feminine : as, 

quid tua id refert? — magni (Ter. Ph.), how does that concern 
you f much, 

refert is seldom used in any other way ; but it takes, rarely, the 

dativus commodi (Hor. Sat. i. i, 49). The object of interest is 

sometimes in the accusative with ad : as, 

magni ad honorem nostrum interest (Fam. xvi. i), it is of 
consequence to our honor. 

Note. — The word interest may be used (1) impersonally with the 
genitive, as above ; (2) personally with the dative : as, interest exer- 
citui, lie is present with the army; (3) with the accusative and pre- 
positions : as, interest inter exercitum et castra, he is between — or, 
there is a difference between — the army and camp. 

e* Some verbs of plenty and want govern the genitive (rarely, 

except egeo and indigeo, need) : as, 

quid est quod defensionis indigeat? (Rose. Am. 12), what is 

there that needs defence F 
satagit rerum suarum, he has his hands full with his own affairs. 



51: I.] DATIVE. 121 

Also, sometimes, potior, get possession of; as always in the phrase 
potiri rerum, to he master of affairs. But these verbs more 
commonly take the ablative. 

Remark. — The genitive is also used after the adverbs pridie, 
the day before; postridie, the day after ; tenus, a^ far a^: as, 

postridie ejus diei (B. G. v. lo), ike next day. ^ 

51. Dative. 

The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected 
by the action, which is usually denoted in English by 
TO or FOR (Indirect Object), 

Note. — The dative seems to have the primary meaning of towards, 
and to be closely akin to the Locative. But this meaning is lost in 
Latin, except in some adverbial forms (eo, illo, &c.) and in the poets. 
In most of its derived meanings, it denotes an object not merely (like 
the Accusative) as passively affected by the action, or caused by it ; but 
as reciprocally sharing in the action, or receiving it actively. Thus, in 
dedit mihi librum, he gave me a book, or fecit mihi iiiiuriam, he did 
me an injury ; it is I that receive the book or feel the wrong. Hence 
persons, or objects personified, are most likely to be in the dative. 
So in the Spanish, the dative is used whenever a Person is the object 
of an action : as, yo veo al hombre, / see the man. 

As this difference between the accusative and dative (direct and 
indirect object) depends on the view taken by the writer, verbs of 
similar meaning in different languages, or even in the same, differ in 
the case of the object. In English, especially, owing to the loss of its 
cases, many verbs are construed as transitive, which in Latin require 
the dative. Thus believe, which in English originally governed the 
genitive, has become transitive ; while the corresponding verb in 
Latin, credo (a compound of cred and do (dha), to place confidence in) 
takes the dative. 

1. Dative with Transitives. Transitive verbs, whose 
meaning permits it, take the dative of the indirect object^ with 
the accusative of the direct. 

These are, especially, verbs of Giving, Telling, Sending, and 

the like : as, 

do tibi librum, I give you a book. 

valetudini tribuamus aliquid (Tusc. i. ii8), let us allow some- 

thi7ig to health. 
illud tibi affirmo (Fam. i. 7), this I assu7^e you. 
Pompeio plurimum debebam (id. i. 9), I owed much to Pompey. 
id omne tibi polliceor ac defero (Man, 24), all this I promise 

you and bestow, 5 



122 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [51: I, 2. 

commendo tibi ejus omnia negotia (Fam. i. i), I fut all his 

affairs in your hands ^ 
amico munusculum mittere (id. ix. 12), to send a slight tribute 

to a friend, 
illi inimico servum remisit (Deiot. ii.)> to him, his enemy, he 

returned a slave, 
dabis profecto misericordise quod iracundiae negavisti (id. 14), 

you will surely grant to mercy what you refused to wrath, 
Karthagini bellum denuntio (Cat. M. 6), / announce war to 

Carthage, 
curis gaudia misces (Catull. — only poet.), thou mi7iglest joy 

with care, 

a. In the passive, sucb verbs retain the dative of the indirect 
object: as, 

haec nobis nuntiantur, tJiese things are told us, 

b. When the idea of motion is distinctly conveyed, a preposi- 
tion is used (except by poetic use) : as, 

has litteras ad te mitto, I send you this letter, 

€• A few verbs of this class — under a different view of the 

action — may take the accusative of a person, with an ablative of 

means. 

Such verbs are dono, impertio, induo, exuo, adspergo, 
inspergo, circumdo, circumfundo, prohibeo, intercludo. 

Thus — 

donat coronas suis, he presents wreaths to his men; or, 

donat suos coronis, he preseitts his men with wreaths. 

pomis se induit arbos (G. iv. 143), the tree decks itself with 

fruits, 
copiis (dat.) armis exutis (B. G. iii.6), the forces being stripped 

of arms. 
aram sanguine adspergere (N. D. iii. 36), to sprinkle the altar 

with blood, 

2. J>ative after Intransitives, Intransitive verbs take 
the dative of the indirect object only : as, 

cedant arma togae (Phil. i. 8), let arms give way to the gown, 
quid homini potest turpius usuvenire (Quinct. 15), what 

more shameful can befall a man P 
respondi maximis criminibus (Phil. i. 14), I have ansivered the 

heaviest charges. 
ut ita cuique eveniat (id. 46), that it may so turn out to each. 
manent ingenia senibus (Cat. M. 7), old. men keep their powers 

of mind. 
vento et fluctibus loqui (Lucr. iv. 491), to talk to wi?id and 

wave. 



51: 2.] DATIVE. 123 

er, 
17), 



nec quereris patri (Juv. ii. 131), jd?« complain not to a father, 
non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum (Hor. Ep. i. 17 
it is not every man's luck to go to Corinth* 



a* Most verbs signifying to favoi\ Jielp, please, serve, trnist, 
and their contraries, — also, to believe, persuade, command, obey, 
envy, threaten, pardon, and spare, — take the Dative in Latin, 
though transitive in English. 

These include, among others, the following : adverser, credo, 
faveo, fido, ignosco, impero, invideo, irascor, noceo, parco, 
pareo, placeo, servio, studeo, suadeo (persuadeo) : as, 

cur mihi invides, why do you eiivy me f 

civitati serviebat, he served the state. 

tibi favemus, we favor you. 

mihi parcit atque ignoscit, he spares a7td pardons me. 

sontibus opitulari poteram (Fam. iv. 13), I zvas able to help the 

guilty. 
bonis invident (Sail.), they envy the good. 
Catoni resistimus (Fam. i. i), we withstand Cato. 
non omnibus servio (id. xvi. 13), / a?n not a serva7tt to every 

man. 
cum ceteris tum mihi ipsi displiceo (id. iv. 13), / dissatisfy 

other people a7id myself too. 
non parcam operse (id. xvi. 13), I will spare 7to pai^is. 
sic mihi persuasi (Cat. M. 21), so I have persuaded myself. 
huic legioni Caesar confidebat maxima (B. G. i. 40), in this 

legion Ccesar had special confidence. 
ex quo efficitur hominem naturae obedientem homini nocere 

non posse (Off. iii. 5), whence it appears that a man while 

obeying Nature caniiot harm a fellow -mail. 

Remark. — !• Some verbs of the same meanings take the ac- 
cusative: as, juvo, adjiivo, lielp; laedo, injure; jubeo, order; 
deficio, fail. 

2o Some take the dative or accusative indifferently : as, adulor, 
flatter; aemulor, rival; comitor, attend; despero, despair; 
praestolor, await; medeor, medicor, heal. 

3. Some take the dative or accusative according to their mean- 
ing : as, 

parti civium consulunt (Off. i. 25), they consult for a party 

of the citize7is. 
cum te consuluissem (Fam. xi. 29), whe?i I had consulted you. 
metuens pueris (Plant. Am. v. i), anxious for the boys. 
nec metuunt deos (Ter. Hec. v. 2), they fear not even the gods 

(so also timeo.^ 
ei cavere volo (Fam. iii. i), I will have a care fof him. 
caveto omnia (id. xi. 21), beware of everything. 



124 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [51: 2. 

prospicite patriae (Cat. iv. 2), have regard for the state, 
prospicere sedem senectuti (Liv. iv. 49), to provide a habita- 
tion for old age [so ?Ci^o providere'l. 
nequeo mihi temperare (Plin. xviii. 6), I can?iot control myself 
rempublicam temperare (Tusc. i. i), to gover?i the state [so 
also inoderor~\* 

See Lexicon, under convenio, cupio, fido (abl.), insisto, 
maneo, praesto, praeverto, recipio, renuntio, solvo, succedo. 

h. The dative is used after the Impersonals libet, licet ; after 
verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male ; together with 
the following: — gratificor, gratulor, haereo (rarely), jungo, 
medeor, medicor, misceo (poetic), nubo, permitto, plaudo, 
probo, studeo, supplico ; and the phrases auctor esse, gratias 
agere (habere), morem gerere (morigeror), supplex (dicto 
audiens) esse: as, 

quod mihi maxime lubet (Fam. i. 18), ivhat most pleases me, 
Di isti Segulio male faciant (id. xi. 21), may the gods se?id evil 

upon that Segulius. 
mihi ipsi nunquam satisfacio (id. 17), I never satisfy myself 
virgo nupsit ei (Div. i. 46), a maiden married him. 
Pompeio se gratulari putent (id. i. i), they suppose they are 

doi?ig Pompey a service, 
sed tibi morem gessi (id. ii. 18), but I have deferred to you- 
tibi pennitto respondere (N. D. iii. i), I give you leave to 

answer. 
armatus adversario maledixi (Fam. vi. 7), in arms I cursed the 

foe. 
voluptati aurium morigerari (Or. 48), to htimor the lust of the 

ears. 
habeo senectuti maximam gratiam (Cat. M. 14), I owe old age 

much thanks. 
maximas tibi gratias ago, I return you the warmest thanks. 

c. Many verbs of the above classes take an accusative of the 
tiling^ with a dative of the jyerson : as, 

cui cum rex crucem minitaretur (Tusc. i. 43), when the king 
threatened him with the cross. 

invident nobis optimam magistram (id. iii. 2), they gjmdge us 
our best of teachers [Nature]. 

frumento exercitui proviso (B. G. v. 44), when the army was 
supplied with corn. 

puerum [vocare] cui cenam imperaret (Ros. Am. 21), to call a 
boy a7id order supper of him. 

imperat oppidanis decem talenta, he exacts ten talents of the 
townspeople. 

omnia sibi ignoscere (Veil. ii. 30), to pardon Okie's self every- 
thing. 



51: 2.] DATIVE. 125 

d» Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, 
post, prae, pro, sub, super — and some with circum — take the 
dative of the object on account of their acquired meaning (many 
take also the accusative, being originally transitive) : as, 

neque enim assentior iis (Lael. Z)-, for I do not agree zvit/i tJiem, 
tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9), it is a poi7it of skill to 

yield to the -weather. 
omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum sed praefuit (id. i. 6), he 

7iot only had a hand in all matters^ but took the lead in them. 
pueritiae adulescentia obrepit (Cat. M.), youth steals upo?i 

childhood. 
[Archise] antecellere omnibus contigit (Arch. 3), it was his 

good fortune to outvie all. ~ ^ 
quantum natura hominis pecudibus antecedit (Off. i. 30), so 

far as mail's 7iature is superior to brutes> 
nos ei succedimus (Fam. vii. 31), ive succeed him. 
criminibus illis pro rege se supponit reum (Deiot. 15), he takes 

those charges upon himself in the kings behalf. 
nee unquam succumbet inimicis (id. 13), he will 7iever betid 

before his foes. 
illis libellis nomen suum inscribunt (Arch. 13), they put their 

01V71 name to those papers. 
tibi obtempera (F. ii. 7), restrain yourself. 
hibernis iLabienum praeposuit (Caes.), he set Labienus over 

the -wiiiter-quarters. 
cur mihi te offers, ac meis commodis officis at obstas (Ros. 

Am. 38), why do you put yourself in my way^ to hinder and 

withsta7id 7ny advantage ? 

So excello : as, 

tu longe aliis excellis (De Or. ii. 54) ^ you far excel others. 

Remark. — 1. Some of the above compounds acquire a transi- 
tive meaning, and take the accusative: as, aggredior, approach; 
adire, go to ; antecedo, anteeo, antegradior, precede (both cases) ; 
convenio, meet; ineo, enter; obeo, encounter; offendo, hit; 
oppugno, oppose ; subeo, go under (take up) : as, 

nos oppugn at (Fam. i. i), he opposes us. 

quis audeat bene comitatum -dggredi, who would dare encounter 

a i)ia7i w ell- attended f 
munus obire (Lael. 2), to atte7id to a duty. 

2. The adjective obvius — also the adverb obviam — with a 
verb takes the dative : as, 

si ille obvius ei futurus non erat (Mil. 18), if he was 7iot ititend- 

i7ig to get i7i his way. 
m'hi obviam venisti (Fam. ii. 16), you caitze to meet 7ne. 



126 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [51: 2, 3. 

e. Many compounds of ab, de, ex, with adimo, take the dative 
(especially of persons') instead of the ablative of separation, — 
the action being more vividly represented as done to the object 
affected by it : as, 

vitam adulescentibus vis aufert (C. M. K))^ force deprives young 

men of life. 
nihil enim tibi detraxit senectus (id. i)^for age has robbed you 
' of nothing. 

nee mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo (id. 23), nor do I wish 

this error wrested from me* 
cum extorta mihi Veritas asset (Or. 48), wheii the truth had 

been forced from me. 

Remark. — The distinct idea oi place, — and, in general, names 
of things, — require the ablative with a preposition ; or both con- 
structions may be used together : as, 

ilium ex periculo eripuit (B. G. iv. 12), he dragged him out of 

danger. 
victoriam eripi sibi e manibus, that victory shoidd be zvrested 

from his hands. 

/. Intransitive verbs governing the dative can be used in the 
Passive only impersonally : as, 

cui parci potuit (Liv. xxi. 12), who could be spared P 

non mode non invidetur illi aetati varum etiam favetur (Off. ii. 

13), that age [youth] is 7iot only 7iot envied^ but is even favored. 
mihi quidem persuaderi nunquam potuit (C. M. 22), I for my 

part could never be persuaded. 
rasistendum senectuti est (id. 11), %ve mtist resist old age. 
plaudi tibi non solera (Daiot. 12)^ that yozi are not wo7it to be 

applauded. 
tampori sarviandum est (Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the time, 

g. The dative Is often used by the poets in constructions which 
would strictly require another case with a preposition : as, 

difFart sarmoni (Hor.), differs from prose [a sarmone]. 
tibi cartat (Virg.). may vie with you [tecum], 
lateri abdidit ensem (id.), buried the szvord in his side [in latere], 
solstitium pacori dafendita (Eel. vii. 47), keep the noontide from 
the flock [a pecora]. 

Here the poets regard the acting as done to the thing affected, for 
greater vividness of expression. 

3. Dative of JPossession, The dative is used after esse 
and similar words to denote the Owner : as, 

est mihi liber, / have a hook. 



51: 3, 4.] DATIVE. 12T 

Remark. — The Genitive or a possessive with esse emphasizes 
the possessor; the Dative the fact of possession: as, liber est 
meus, the book is mine (and no one's else) ; est mihi liber, / have 
a hook (among other things) . This is the usual form to denote 
simple possession ; habeo, / have, generally signifying holdy often 
with some secondary meaning : as, 

legionem quam secum habebat (B. G. i. 8), ^^e legion which 

he had with him. 
domitas habere libidines (De Or.), to keep the passions under. 

a. Compounds of esse take the dative (excepting abesse and 
posse; for other compounds, see above, 2, d), 

h. After nomen est, and similar expressions, the name is usu- 
ally put in the dative by a kind of apposition with the person : as, 

puero ab inopia Egerio inditum nomen (Liv. i. 34), the boy 

was called Egerius from his poverty. 
cui Africano fuit cognomen (Liv. xxv. 2), whose surname was 

Africanus. 

But the name may be in apposition with nomen ; or in the genitive 

(§ 50, I,/) : as, 

cui nomen Arethusa (Verr. iv. 52), [a fount] called Arethusa. 
nomen Mercuri est mihi (Plaut. Am.), my name is Mercury. 

4. Dative of Agency. The dative is used, after some 
passive forms, to denote the agent: viz. 

dm Regularly with the Gerund or Gerundive, to denote the 
person on whom the necessity rests : as, 

hsec vobis provincia est defendenda (Man. 6), this province is 

for you to defend [to be defended by you], 
mihi est pugnandum, I have to fight [i.e., the need of fighting 

is mine; compare mihi est liber^. 

h. The dative is often used after perfect participles, especially 
when used in an adjective sense, — rarely after other parts of the 
verb: as, 

- mihi deliberatum et constitutum est (RuU. i. 8), I have deliber^ 

ated and resolved. 
oratori omnia qu^esita esse debent (De Or. iii. 14), ati orator 

should search everything. 
acceptus mihi, acceptable to me. 

c. By the poets and later writers it is used in this way after 

almost any passive verb : as, 

neque cernitur ulli (^n. i. 440), nor is seen by any. 
felix est dicta sorori (Fast. iiiO> -^^^ '^^■^ called happy by her 
sister. 



128 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [51: 4, 5, 6. 

Remark. — The dative is regularly used after the passive of 
video (usually to be rendered seern) : as, 

videtur mihi, // see^ns (or seems good) to me, 

5. Dative of Service* The dative is used to denote 
the purpose or end ; often with another dative of the person 
or thing aiFected : as, 

reipublicse cladi sunt (Jug. 85), tkey are ruin to the State. 

rati sese dis immortalibus curse esse (id. 75), thinking them- 
selves to be the special care of the gods. 

magno usui nostris fuit (B. G. iv. 25), it tvas of great service 
to our men, 

tertiam aciem nostris subsidio misit (id.), he sent the third line 
(IS a relief to our men. 

omnia deerant quse ad reficiendas naves erant usui (id. 29), all 
things were ivaiiting ivhich ivere of use for repairing the ships. 

Remark. — In this use the dative is nearly equivalent to a noun 
in apposition with the subject or object of the verb. It is common 
with the words cordi, a delight (lit. to the heart) ; dono, a gift ; 
emolumeuto, a gain ; usui, an advantage ; vitio, a fault. The 
indeclinable adjective frugi is properly a dative of service. 

6. Dative of Nearness^ &c. The dative is used after 
Adjectives and Adverbs, to denote that to vrhich the given 
quality is directed, or for which it exists. 

Such are especially words oi fitness, nearness, likeness, service, 
inclination, and their opposites : as, 

nihil est tam naturae aptum (Lael. 5), nothing is so fitted to 

nature. 
carus omnibus exspectatusque venies (F. xvi. ";)•, you -will come 

loved and longed for by all. 
locum divinae naturae aeternitatique contrarium (Cat. M. 21), 

a point opposed to the divine natu7'e and eter^iity. 
nihil difficile amanti puto (Or. 10), I think nothing hard to a 

lover. 
pompae quam pugnae aptius (id. i-^, fitter for a procession than 

a battle. 
consentaneum tempori et personae (id. 22), adapted to the time 

and the party. 
rebus ipsis par et aequalis oratio (id, 36), a speech equal and 

level with the subject. 

Also, in poetic and colloquial use, idem, the same: as, 
in eadem arma nobis (Cic), to the same arms with us. 
a* Adjectives of Usefulness or Fitness take oftener the accusa- 
tive with ad, but sometimes the dative : as, 



51: 6, 7-] DATIVE. 129 

aptus ad rem militarem, fit for a soldier's duty. 
locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 20), a place fitter for lyifig-in- 
ad amicitiam idoneus (Lael. 17), apt to friendship. \_wait. 

castris idoneum locum deligit (B. G. vi. 10), /le selects a suit- 
able ca mp i7ig-gro u n d. 

b* Adjectives and nouns of inclination may take the accusative 
with in or erga : as, 

comis in uxorem (Hor. Ep. ii^ 2), kind to his wife, 
divina bonitas erga homines (N. D. ii. 23), the divine goodness 
tozvards men, 

€• The following may take also the possessive genitive : — 
aequalis, afBnis, amicus, cognatus, communis, consanguin- 
eus, dispar, familiaris, inimicus, necessarius, par, peculiaris, 
proprius, superstes. 

Remark. — After similis, like, with early writers, the genitive 
is more usual ; Cicero uses the genitive oi persons , and the genitive 
or dative of things. 

d* The following take the accusative : — propior, proximus 
(sometimes), propius, proxime (more commonly) — as if preposi- 
tions, like prope. 

€• Verbal nouns take (rarely) the dative, like the verbs from 
which they are derived : as, 

invidia consuli (Sail.), ill-ivill against the consul. 
ministri sceleribus (Tac), servants of crime. 
obtemperatio legibus (Leg. i. 15J, obedience to the laws. 
sibi ipsi responsio (De Or. iii. 54), an answer to himself 

•y. Dative of Advantage* The dative is often required 
not by any particular vrord, but by the general meaning of the 
sentence {dativus commodi et incommodi). 

Note. — In these cases there may be only one word in the sen- 
tence ; but they are distinguished by the fact that the meaning of the 
verb is complete without the dative, while in the preceding cases it is 
required to complete the sense of some particular word. 

tibi aras (PI. Merc. i. i), you plough for yourself 

non solum nobis divites esse volumus sed liberis (Off. iii. 15), 

it is not for ourselves alofze but for our children that we 

would be rich. 
res tuas tibi babe (formula of divorce), keep your goods. 
laudavit mihi fratrem, he praised my brother [out of regard for 

me; laudavit fratrem memn would imply no such motive]. 

6* 



130 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [51: 7. 

a* The dative of advantage is often used instead of the posses- 
sive genitive : as, 

iter Poenis vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. M. 20), to block 
the march of the Cartkagmta?is evejt -with their bodies. 

86 in conspectum nautis dedit (Verr. vi. 33), he put himself in 
sight of the sailors. 

versatur mihi ante oculos (id. 47), it comes before my eyes. 

h* The dative of advantage is used in relations of direction, 
answering to the English as you go in (on the right, in the front, 
&c.) : as, 

oppidum primum Thessalise venientibus ab Epiro (B, C iii. 

80), the first tozvii of Thessaly as y 02c come from Epirus. 
laeva parte sinum intrantibus (Liv. xxxvi. 26), 071 the left as 

you sail up the gulf. 

€• The dative of advantage is used, rarely (by a Greek idiom), 
with the participle of volo or nolo, and similar words : as, 

ut quibusque bellum invitis aut volentibus erat (Tac. Ann. i. 59), 
as they might receive the war reluctantly or gladly. 

ut militibus labos volentibus esset (Jug. 100), that the soldiers 
7night assu77te the task willi7igly. 

d. Ethical Dative. The dative of the personal pronouns is 
used to show a certain interest felt by the person referred to 
{dativus etJiicus: compare **I'll rhyme you so eight years to- 
gether." — As you Like it) : as, 

quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor.), pray what is Celsus doi7ig f 

at tibi repente venit mihi Cominius (F. ix. 2), but^ look you^ 

of a sudde7i co77ies to 77ie Co7ni7iius. 
hem tibi talentum argenti (PI. Trin. v. i), hark ye, a talent 

of silver. 
quid tibi vis ? tvhat tvould you have f 
avaritia senilis quid sibi velit non intelligo (Cat. M. 18), I do 

not understa7id what an old 77ia7i's avarice mea?is. 

Kemakk. — To express for — meaning instead of in defence 
of in helialf of — the ablative with pro must be used, not the 
dative : as, 

pro patria mori (Hor. Od. iii. 2), to die for one^s cwuntry. 
pro rege, lege, grege (prov.), for king, law, people. 
ego ibo pro te (PI. Most.), I will go instead of you. 
non pro me sed contra me (De Or. iii. 20), not for me but 
agai7ist me* 



52: I.] ACCUSATIVE. 131 



52. Accusative. 

The Accusative denotes that which is immediately 
affected by the action of a verb (^Direct Object}. 

1. General Use* The Accusative is the case of the 
direct object of a transitive verb : as, 

legationem suscepit, he undertook the embassy. 
Caesar vicit Pompeiuin, Ccesar conquered Pompey. 

Remark. — The Object of a transitive verb in the active voice 
becomes its Subject in the Passive, and is put in the nomi- 
native : as, 

legatio suscipitur, the embassy is undertaken. 

Pompeius a Caesare victus est, Pompey was overcome by Ccesar. 

a. Many verbs which express Feeling, apparently intransitive, 
may take an accusative in Latin : as, 

fidem supplicis erubuit (Virg.), he respected [blushed at] the 

faith of a suppliant. 
flebat mortuos vivosque, he wept the dead a?id living. 
meum casum luctumque doluerunt (Sest.69), they grieved\_2i^ 

my calamity and sorrow. 
horreo conscientiam (Fin. i. 16), I shudder at conscience. 

Such verbs may accordingly be used in the passive : as, 

ridetur ab omni conventu (Hor.), Jie is laughed [at] by the 
whole assembly, 

h. Cognate Accusative. A neuter verb often takes an ac- 
cusative of kindred meaning (almost always modified by an adjec- 
tive, or in some other manner) : as, 

vivere cam vitam (Cic), to live that kind of life. 
getatem tertiam vivebat, he was living his third age. 

Similarly, in such phrases as vincere judicium, to gain one's 
case at court, and in poetic use : as, 

saltare Cyclopa (Hor. Sat. v. i), to dance the Cyclops, 
Bacchanalia vivere (Juv. ii. 2), to live in revels. 

€• Verbs of taste, smell, i&c, take an accusative of the qual- 
ity: as, 

vinum redolens (Cic), smelling of wine. 

herbam mella sapiunt (Plin.), the honey tastes of grass. 



132 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [52: 1,2. 

d» Yerbs of motion, and a few others, compounded with prep- 
ositions, especially compounds of circum and trans, frequently 
become transitive, and take the accusative : as, 

mortem obire, to die, 

consulatum ineunt (Livy iii. 6), they assume the consulship, 

neminem conveni (Fam. ix. 14), 1 7net 710 one, 

tectum subire, to enter [go under] a place of shelter, 

colloquium baud abnuit (Livy xxx. 29), he did not refuse the 

iiitervieiv, 
si insulam adisset (B. G. iv. 20), if he shoidd go to the island. 
Gives qui circumstant senatum (Cat. i. 8), the citizens who 

throng about the senate, 

€• Constructio Praegnans. The accusative is used in certain 
phrases constructively, the real object of the verb being something 
understood: as, 

coire societatem, to [go together and] form an alliance, 

ferire fcedus, to strike a treaty [i.e. to sanction by striking 
down the victim]. 

mare navigare, to sail the sea [i.e. to sail a ship upon the sea]. 

/. The accusative is used after the Impersonals decet, it he- 
comes ; delectat, juvat, it delights ; oportet, it behooves ; fallit, 
it deceives ; fugit, praeterit, it escapes ; as, 

te non praeteriit (Fam. i. 8), it has ?iot escaped your notice, 
(For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see § 50, 4, c.) 

2. Two Accusatives* Several classes of verbs, besides 
the direct object, take another accusative, either in apposition 
or as a secondary object. 

d. The accusative is used in apposition after verbs of naming, 
choosing, &c. (See § 46.) 

5* A second accusative is sometimes used after transitive verbs 

compounded with prepositions : as, 

Hiberum copias trajecit (Liv. xxi. 23), he threw his forces 
across the Ebro, 

But with these verbs the preposition is oftener repeated. 

c. Verbs of asking and teaching govern two accusatives, either 

of which may be regarded as the direct object of the action : as, 

hoc vos doceo (Cic), I teach you this. 

hoc te vehementer rogo (id.), this I tirgeiitly beg of you, 

Hemark. — The accusative of the thing may remain, in this 
construction, after a passive : as, rogatus sententiam ; while the 
person will be, after verbs of asking, in the ablative with the prep- 
osition ab or ex: as, hoc a te rogatur. The preposition is 



52:3,4-] ACCUSATIVE. 133 

always used, to denote the person after peto, postulo (ab), 

quaero (ex or de) : as, 

pacem ab Romanis petere (Cses.), to beg peace of the Romans, 
d* The transitive celo, conceal, and the usually neuter lateo, 

lie hid, take the accusative of the person : as, 

hoc me celavit, he hid this fro7n me, 

latet plerosque (Plin.), it is hid from most, 

3. Adverbial Accusative* The accusative is used ad- 
verbially, or for specification. This is found — 

a. With many verbs usually intransitive, which take a neuter 
pronoun or adjective in the accusative ; as, 
quid moror, ivhy do I delay f 

pauca milites hortatus (Sail.), having briefly exhorted the me7t, 
dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22), sweetly speaking, 
acerba tuens (^n. ix. 793), looking cruelly. 
torvum clamat (id. vii. 599), he cries harshly, 
idem gloriari, to boast the same thing. 
Note. — Many of these are cognate accusative, 

&• In a few adverbial phrases, such as id temporis, o;t that 
time ; meam vicem, on my part ; quod si, but (as to which) if, 

€• In the so-called synecdochical or Greek accusative, used by 

the poets to denote the part affected : as, 

caput nectentur (Virg.), their head shall be bound [they shall 
be bound about the head]. 

The part is strictly in apposition with the whole, and remains (as 
above) after the passive. 

Remark. — The accusative after passive verbs used refiexwely 
is sometimes wrongly referred to this construction : as, 

inutile ferrum cingitur (Virg.), he girds o?i the useless steel, 

4. Special Uses* Peculiar uses are the following : — 

a* The accusative is used in Exclamations : as, 

O fortunatam rempublicam (Cic), O fortunate republic! 
O me miserum ! Ah -wretched me ! 

h» The subject of the Infinitive Mood is in the accusative. 
This is especially frequent after verbs of knowing, thinking, and 
telling (verba sentiendi et declarandi, § 67, i). In all cases, 
the accusative is strictly the Object of the leading verb. 

c. Time how long, and Distance liowfar, are in the accusative. 
(See § 55.) 

For the Accusative with Prepositions, see § 56. 



134 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [53; 54. 



53. Vocative. 

The Vocative is the form of direct Address : as, 

Tiberine pater, te sancte precor (Liv. ii. 103) , father Tiber ! 
thee, holy one, I pray. 

Note. — The Vocative can hardly be called a case, as it properly 
has no case termination, and forms no part of the sentence. 

a* Sometimes the nominative of a noun is used instead of the 
vocative, in apposition with the subject of the Imperative : as, 
audi tu, populus Albanus (id. i. 24), hear, thou ^people of Alba, 

h» Sometimes the vocative of an adjective is used instead of the 
nominative, where the verb is of the second person : as, 

censorem trabeate salutas (Pars.), robed you salute the censor. 

So in the phrase, 

macte [= magna, root mag] virtute esto (Hor.), be enlarged 
in matiliness [bravo, wall done]. 



54. Ablative. 

The Ablative is used to denote the relations ex- 
pressed in English by the prepositions from^ in, 
at, with, hy. 

Note. — The Ablative ./orm contains three distinct cases, — the 
ablative proper, expressing the relation from; the locative, in'; and 
the instrumental, with or by. This confusion has arisen partly 
from phonetic decay, by which the cases have become identical in 
form, and partly from the development by which they have ap- 
proached one another in meaning. Compare, for the first, the like 
forms of the dative and ablative plural, the old dative in e of the fifth 
declension, and the loss of the original d in the ablative ; and, for the 
second, the phrases a parte dextra, on the right ; quam ob causam, 
FROM which cause; ad famam, at (in consequence of) the report. 

The relative of from includes separation, source, cause, agent, and 
comparison ; that of in or at, place, time, circumstance ; that of with or 
BY, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, qualitij, and price. It is 
probable that, originally, the idea oi accompaniment had a separate case, 
which became confounded with the instrumental before the Latin was 
separated from the kindred tongues. 



54: I.] ABLATIVE. 135 

1. Ablative of Separation* Yjerbs meaning to remove^ 
set free, he absent, deprive, and want, are followed by the 
ablative: as, 

levamur superstitione, liberamur mortis metu (Fin. i. 19), ive 

are relieved from stiperstitioti, freed fro7}t fear of death. 
oculis se privavit (id. v. 29), he deprived himself of eyes. 
consilio et auctoritate orbari (Cat. M. 6), to be bereft of cou7isel 

and authority, 
legibus solutus, relieved from the obligatio7t of lazvs, 
ea philosophia quae spoliat nos judicio, privat approbatione, 

omnibus orbat sensibus (Acad. ii. 19), that philosophy Tvhich 

despoils us of judgment., deprives of approval., bereaves of 

every seiise. 
omni Gallia interdicit Romanos (B. G. i. 46), he [Ariovistus] 

bars the Roma?isfrofn the whole of Gaul, 
ei aqua et igni interdicitur (Vail. Pat. ii. 45), he is debarred 

the use of fire a7id -water. 
[cives] calamitate prohibere (Manil. 7), to keep ther citizens 

from ruin. 
carere febri (Fam. xvi. 16), to be free from fever, 
voluptatibus carere (Cat. M. 3), to lack e7ijoyments, 
non egeo medicina (Lael. 3), I ivant ?io physic, 
magno me metu liberabis (Cat. i. 5), you will relieve 7ne of 

great fear. 
Ephorus calcaribus eget (Quint.), Ephorus needs the spur, 

a. Compounds of a, ab, de, ex, take the ablative when used 
figuratively ; but in their literal meaning, implying motion, they 
usually follow the rules o^ place from which (see § 55, 3) : as, 

conatu desistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the atte^npt. 

exsolvere se occupationibus (Fam. vii. i), to get clear of occu- 
pation. 

prius quam ea cura decederet patribus (Liv. ix. 29), before that 
anxiety left the fathers. 

desine communibus locis (Ac. ii. 25), quit com7no7ifilaces, 

abire magistratu, to leave the ofiice. 

abscedere incepto, to relinquish the U7tdertaking. 

abstinere injuria, to refrain fro7?i wro7tg, 

exire aere alieno, to get out of debt. 

h. More rarely, the ablative is used after verbs without a prep- 
osition to denote the place from which : as, 

cessisset patria (Mil. 25), he would have left his cou7itry. 
loco movere (Liv. i. 35), to 7tiove fro7n its place. 
patria pellere, to drive out of the country. 
Gallia arcere (Phil. v. 13), to keep out of Gatil. 
manu mittere, to ema7icipate [let go from the hand]. 



136 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: I, 2. 

c. Adjectives denoting freedom and loant are followed by the 
ablative : as, 

liber cura et angore (Fin. i. 15), free from care and anguish, 

vacuos curis (ib. ii. 14), void of care. 

urbs nuda praesidio (Att. vii. 13), tJie city naked of defence, 

immunis militia (Liv. i. 43), free of 7nilita7'y service. 

plebs orba tribunis (Leg. iii. 3), the feofle deprived of tribmies. 

d» Opus and usus signifying need (with esse) are followed 
hy the ablative (often by the ablative of the perfect particijyle, with 
or without a noun) : as, ' 

magistratibus opus est (Leg. iii. 2), there is need of magistrates. 
curatore usus est (id. 4, — chiefly ante-classical), there is fieed 

of a ma7iager. 
properato opus esset (Mil. 19), there ivere need of haste. 
ut opu'st facto (Ter. Heaut.), as there is need to do. 

Remark. — The nominative is often used with opus in the 
predicate : as, 

multi opus sunt boves (Varro R. R. i. 18), there is 7ieed of inany 

cattle. 
dux nobis et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6), -we need a chief and 

adviser, 

€• Egeo and indigeo are often followed by the genitive : as, 

ne quis auxili egeat (B. G. vi. 11), lest a?iy require aid. 

quse ad consolandum majoris ingeni et ad ferendum singularis 
virtutis indigent (Fam. vi. 4), [sorrows] which for comfort 
need more ability .^ and for endurance U7iusual courage. 

Remark. — With all words of separation and want, the poets 
frequently, by a Greek idiom, use the genitive (see § 50, 3, c) : as, 

desine mollium tandem querelarum (Hor. Od. ii. 9), cease at 

le7igth fro7n weak C07nplai7its. 
abstineto irarum (id. iii. 2^^y abstai7i fro7n wrath. 
operum solutis (id. 17), freefro7n toils, 

2. Ablative of Source* The ablative is used to denote 
the source from which anything is derived, or the material 
of vrhich it consists. 

u. Participles denoting hirfh or origin are followed by the 
ablative. Such participles are natus, satus, editus, genitus, 
ortus: as, 

Jove natus et Maia (N. D. iii. 22), son of Jupiter and Maia. 
ortus equestri loco (Leg. Agr. i. 9), bor7t of equestrian rank, 
edite regibus (Hor. Od. i. i), desce7ida7it of ki7igs. 
quo sanguine cretus (^n. ii. 74), bor7i of what blood. 



54: 2, 3-] ABLATIVE. 137 

Kemark. — A preposition (ab, de, ex) is usually expressed 
with the name of the mother, and with that of distant ancestors. 

h. Rarely, the^Zace ofhirth is expressed by the ablative : as, 

desideravit C. Felginatem Placentia, A. Granium Puteolis 
(B. C. iii. 71), he lost C. F. of Placentia, A. G, of Puteoli, 

C. The ablative is used with constare and similar verbs, to 
denote material (but with other verbs a preposition is generally 
used, except by the poets) : as, 

animo constamus et corpora (Fin. iv. 8), we consist of soul and 
body. 

Note. — The ablative with consistere and contineri is locative 
(see below, 10). 

d. The ablative of material is used with facere, fieri, and 
similar words : as, 

quid hoc homine facias (Verr. ii. 16), What are you going to 

do -with this man P 
quid Tulliola mea fiet (Fam. xiv. 4), what will become of my 

dear Tullia f 
quid te futurum est (Verr. ii. 64), what will happen to you f 

3. Ablative of Cause* The ablative (with or without a 
preposition) is used to express the cause. 

Note. — The cause, in the Ablative, is considered as source, as is 
shown by the use of ab, de, ex ; while with ad, ob, the idea of cause 
arises from nearness. But occasionally it is difficult to distinguish be- 
tween cause and means (which is instrumental) or circumstance (either 

locative or instrumental). 

• 

nimio gaudio paene desipiebam (Fam. i. 13), I was almost a 

fool with excess of joy. 
negligentia plectimur (Lael. 22), we are chastised for neglige?ice. 
caecus avaritia (Liv. v. 51), blind with avarice. 
gubernatoris ars utilitate non arte laudator (Fam. i. 13), the 

pilot's skill is praised as service 7iot as skill. 

a* The ablative is used with the adjectives dignus, indignus, 
and with the verbs dignor, laboro (also with ex), exsilio, 
exsulto, triumpho, lacrimo, ardeo. 

vir patre, avo, majoribus suis dignissimus (Phil. iii. 10), a man 
most worthy of his father, grandfather, and ancestors. 

doleo te aliis malis laborare (Fam. iv. 3), I am sorry that you 
suffer with other ills. 

ex aere alieno laborare (B. C. iii. 22), to labor under debt. 

exsultare Isetitia ac triumphare gaudio coepit (Clu. 5), she 
began to exult in gladness^, and triumph in joy. 



138 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 3, 4> 5- 

h. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting 

is expressed by the ablative alone ; the object exciting the emotion 

often by ob or propter with the accusative : as, 

non ob praedam aut spoliandi cupidine (Tac. H. i. 63), not for 
booty or through lust of plunder, 

c. The ablatives causa and gratia, for the sake of, are used 
with a genitive preceding, x)r with a possessive in agreement : as, 

e^ causa, on account of this \ mad causa, for my sake, 

et ipsorum et reipublicse causa (Manil. 2)^ for their own sake 

and the republic's. 
sui purgandi gratia, for the saL-e of clearing themselves. 

With possessives the use of gratia in this sense is rare. 

4. Ablative of Agent* The voluntary agent after a pas- 
sive verb is put in the ablative with ab (see § 56, 4) : as, 

laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis (Hor. Sat. i. 2), he is praised 
by these^ blamed by those. ' 

ab animo tuo quidquid agitur id agitur a te (Tusc.i. 22), 'what- 
ever is done by your soul is done by yourself 

a. This construction is sometimes used after neuter verbs hav- 
ing a passive sense : as, 

perire ab hoste, to be slain by afi eneiny, 

h* The agent, considered as instrument or means, is expressed 
by per with the accusative, or by opera with a genitive or posses- 
sive : as, 

per Antiochum (Li v.), by mea^is of Antiochus. 
mea opera (Cic), by my means. 

So per vim, as well as vi (B. G. i. 14), hy force, 

5. Ablative of Comparison. The Comparative degree 

is followed by the ablative (signifying than) : as, 

quis me beatior (Tusc. i. 4), who more blest thajt IP 
quid nobis duobus laboriosius est (Mil. 2), what more burdened 
than ive two P 

Note. — Here the object of comparison is the starting-point from 
which we reckon, as itself possessing the quality in some degree. That 
this is the true explanation is shown by the ablative in Sanskrit, and 
the genitive in Greek. 

a* Quam with the same case as the adjective may also be used, 
and must regularly be used when the adjective is not either nomi- 
native or accusative. But the poets sometimes use the ablative 
even then : as. 



54: Sj 6.] ABLATIVE. 139 

pane egeo jam mellitis potiore placentis (Hor. Ep. i. lo), Iwani 
bread better tha7i ho7iey-cakes. 

Remark. — Quam is never used in this construction with rela- 
tive pronouns having a definite antecedent. 

&• Particularly the idiomatic ablatives opinione, spe, solito, 
dicto, aequo, credibili, and justo, are used instead of a clause : as, 

celerius opinione (Fam. iv. 23), faster tha^i one would think. 
amnis solito citatior (Liv. xxii. 19), a stream swifter than its 
wont, 

€• Plus, minus, amplius, longius, are often used with words 
of measure or number without aflfecting their case (being in a kind 
of apposition) : as, 

plus septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), more than 700 ruere taken. 

plus tertia parte interfecta (Caes.), more than a third part being 
slain. 

spatium non amplius sexcentorum pedum (id.), a space of not 
more than 600 feet. 

Note. — Alius is used by the poets with the ablative, perhaps in 
imitation of the Greek ; but the construction is found also in Sanskrit, 
and is probably original: as, alium sapienti honoque (Hor. Ep. i. 16). 
Under comparatives belong the adverbs antea, antidea, postilla, 
postea, praeterea, earlier than this, &c. (see § 56, 3). 

[For Ablative of Difference, see below, 6, e.] 

6. Ablative of Means. The ablative is used to denote 

accom'paniment^ means^ or instrument : as, 

vultu Milonis perterritus (Mil. 15), scared by the face of Milo. 
animum appellat novo nomine (Tusc. i. 10), he calls the mi?id 

by a new name. 
probabilia conjectura sequens {\d. g), following- frobabilities 

by coiijecttire. 
excultus doctrina (id. 2), thoroughly traiited in learfiing. 
fidibus canere (id.), to si7ig to the lyre. 
Fauno immolare agna (Hor. Od. i. 4), to sacrifice to Faunus 

with a ezve-lamb. 
pol pudere quam pigere praestat totidem literis (Plant, Trin. 

345), by Pollux better shame than blame, although the letters 

count the same [lit. with as many letters]. 

a. The ablative of accompaniment regularly takes cum (except 
sometimes in military phrases, and a few isolated expressions, 
especially in the early writers) : as, 

cum funditoribus sagittariisque flumen transgress! (B. G. ii. 

19), having crossed the river with the slif?gers and ar chef's. 
subsequebatur omnibus copiis (ib.), he follozved close with all 

his forces. [^out. 

hocpr2esidio profectus est (Verr. ii. 34), with this convoy he set 



140 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 6. 

Remark. — Misceo and jungo, with their compounds, may 
take the ablative of accompaniment, without cum, or sometimes 
the dative. 

6. Words of contention require cum (but often take the dative 

in poetry) : as, 

armis cum hoste certare (Cic.)? to fight with the efiemy in arms, 
est mihi tecum certamen (id.), I have a controversy with you, 
solus tibicertat Amyntas (Eel. v.S),Amyntas alone vies with you, 

€• The ablative of means is used with words oi jilling, abound- 
ing, and the like : as, 

Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum (Univ. 3), God has filled 

the world tvith all good things, 
dialecticis imbutus (Tusc. i. 7), tinctured with logic, 
circumfusi caligine (id. 19), overspread with darkness, 
opimus prseda (Verr. i. 50), rich with spoil, 
vita plena et conferta voluptatibus (Sext. 10), a life full and 

crowded with delights. 
Forum Appi difFertum nautis (Hor. Sat. i. 5), Forum Appii 

crammed with bargemen, 

Remark. — These verbs and adjectives take the genitive in the 
poets by a Greek idiom : as, 

terra scatet ferarum (Lucr. v. 41), the land abounds in wild 

creatures, 
explere ultricis flammae (^En. ii. ^'^6), fill with avenging flame, 

Compleo, impleo, and plenus, often take the genitive in prose. 

d* The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, with 
several of their compounds, govern the ablative : as, 

utar vestra benignitate (Cic), / will avail myself of your 

kindness- 
Numid^ plerumque lacte et ferina carne vescebantur (Jug. 88), 

the Numidiaiis fed mostly on milk and game. 

Potior also takes the genitive, as always in the phrase potiri 
rerum, to get the power. In early Latin, the accusative is 
sometimes found with these verbs. 

6. The ablative is used with comparatives and words implying 
comparison, to denote the degree of difference : as, 

duobus milibus plures, 7nore 7iumerous by 2000. 

quinque milibus passuum distat (Liv.), it is five miles dista?it. 

Remarks. — This use is especially frequent with the ablatives 
eo . . . quo ; quanto . . . tanto (see § 22, c) : as, 

quo minus cupiditatis eo plus auct9ritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), the 
less greed the more weight. 



54: 7, 8.] ABLATIVE. 141 

7. Ablative of Quality. The ablative is used, with an 
adjective or limiting genitive, to denote manner and quality : as, 

animo meliore, of better mind. 
more hominum, after the manner of men, 

non quaero quanta memoria fuisse dicatur (Tusc. i. 24), / do 
not ask how great a memory he is said to have had, 

a. The ablative of description (with adjectives) is always used 
to denote physical characteristics (other quahties may be in the 
genitive) : as, 

vultu sereno, of calm face. 

capillo sunt promisso (B. G. v. 14), they have long hanging lochs, 

b* The ablative of manner more commonly takes cum, unless it 
has a modifying adjective : as, 

minus cum cura (Plant.), less carefully. 

hoc onus feram studio et industria (Rose Am. 4), I will bear 
this burden with pai7is and diligence. 

But words of manner, modo, ratione, via, &c. — with such ex- 
pressions as silentio, in silence^ injuria, wrongfully — hardly ever 
have cum. 

8. Ablative of Trice. The price of a thing (or that 
which is given in exchange) is put in the ablative : as, 

agrum vendidit sesterti^m sex milibus, he sold the field for 

6000 sesterces, 
exsilium patria sede mutavit (C^C. iii. 8), he exchanged his 

native land for exile, 

a* Certain genitives of Quantity are used to denote indefinite 
value. Such genitives are magni, parvi, tanti, quanti, pluris, 
minoris: as, 

est mihi tanti (Cat. ii. 7), it is 7Vorth my while. 
me^ magni interest, it is of great consequence to me. 

Remark. — With verbs of buying and selling, the ablative of 
price (magno, &c.) must be used, except the following genitives : 
tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris. 

&• The genitive of certain nouns is used in the same way : as, 
non flocci faciunt (PL Trin.), they care not a straw. 

The genitives so used are nihili, nothing ; assis, a farthing ; 
flocci, a lock of wool ^ and a few others (see § 50, i, ?'). 

[For the Ablative of Penalty, see § 50, 4, b, Rem.] . 



142 CONSTRUCTION OF CASKS. [54: 9, lo. 

0. Ablative of Specification, The ablative denotes 
that in respect to which anything is said to be or be done, or 
in accordance with which anything happens : as, 

virtute praecedunt (B. G. i. i)., t/iey excel z?t courage, 
incluta bello moenia {JEn, ii. 24), %v alls famous (71 war, 
claudus altero pede (Nep. Ages.), lame of one foot. 
lingua hassitantes, voce absoni (DeOr. i.), hesitating in speech^ 

harsh iii voice. 
tanta caritas patriae est. ut earn non sensu nostro sed salute 
ipsius tnetiamur (Tusc. i. 37), such is our love of country^ that 
ive measure it 7iot by our ow?ifeeli7tg, but by her own welfare. 

10. Locative Ablative* The ablative of the place 
where is retained in many figurative expressions : as, 

jure peritus, skilled i7i law [compare Sanskrit usages], 
pendemus animis (Tusc. i. 40), we are i7i suspe7ise of 7)ti?id, 
socius periculis vobiscum adero (Jug. 85), I will be prese7it 

with you a co7Kpa7iio7i i7i da7igers. 
premit alto corde dolorem (^^n. i. 209), he keeps doivn the 

pai7i deep i7i his heart. 
conferta legione (B. G. iv. 33), ^5 they were in close order. 
pedibus prceliantur (id. 34), they fight on foot. 
quibus rebus (id. 35), luider these circumstances. 

a. The verbs acquiesco, delector, laetor, gaudeo, glorior, 
nitof, sto, maneo, fido (confido), consisto, contineor, — with 
the verbals fretus, contentus, laetus, — are followed by the 
ablative: as, 

spe niti (Att. iii. 9), to rely on hope. 

prudentia fidens (Off. i. 33), trusting in prudence. 

Isetari bonis rebus (Lael. 13), to rejoice i7i good thi7igs. 

Remark. — The above verbs also take the preposition in. 

h* Ablative Absolute. A noun or pronoun, with a parti- 
ciple, is put in the ablative, to define the time or circumstances of 
an action (compare § 72). An adjective, or another noun, may 
take the place of the participle. 

vocatis ad se undique mercatoribus (B. G. iv. 20), havi7zg called 

to him the traders fr07n all quarters. 
exigua parte aestatis reliqua (id.), whe7i but a small part of the 

summer was left. 
M. Messal^ et M. Pisone consulibus (id. i. 2), i7i the C07zsulship 

of Messala and Piso. 

Note. — In this use the noun is equivalent to the Subject, and the 
participle to the Predicate, of a subordinate clause ; and so they should 



54: 10 ; 55.] TIME AND PLACE. 143 

generally be translated. But, as^ the copula esse has no participle in 
Latin, a noun or adjective is often found alone as predicate, while the 
participle is found, in this construction, in Sanskrit and Greek. The 
noun originally denotes circumstance, considered as place or time (loca- 
tive) ; then, being modified by a participle, it becomes fused with it 
into a single idea, equivalent to that contained in a subordinate clause 
(compare ab urbe coiidita, lit. from the city built). 

€• Sometimes a participle or adjective (under the construction 
of the ablative absolute) is put in agreement with a phrase or 
clause, or is used adverbially : as, 

incerto quid peterent, since it was uncertain -what they sought. 
auspicate (Tac. H. i. 84), after taking the auspices [the auspices 

having been taken], 
consulto et cogitato (Off i. 8), on purpose aiid with reflection 

[the matter having been deliberated and thought on], 
sereno (Liv. xxxi. 12), under a clear sky. 

d* The ablative is often used to denote the 'place where, or the 
time when (see § 55, i ; 3,/"). 

[For the government of the Ablative by Prepositions, see § S6.'\ 



55. Time and Place. 

1. Time. Time when (or within which) is put in the 
Ablative ; time how long the Accusative : as, 

constituta die, on the set day. 

quota hora.^ at what o'clock P 

tribus proxumis annis (Jug. 11), withiji the last three years. 

dies continues triginta, for a month together. 

paucis post diebus {or paucos post dies), after a few days, 

[Here diebus is the ablative of differe7ice (§ 54, 6, ^), and 

post an adverb (§ 56, 2, d),~\ 

Note. — The ablative of time is locative ; the accusative is the same 
as that of extent of space (see below), heri vespari). 

a. The use of a preposition gives greater precision and clear- 
ness : as, 

in diebus proximis decern (Sail.), within the 7iext te7i days. 
ludi per decern dies (Cat. iii. 8), games lasting tefi days. 

b. The ablative is rarely used to express duration of time : as, 

milites quinque horis proelium sustinuerant (B. C. i. 47), the 
men had sustained the fight five hours, [This use is locative.'^ 



144 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [55: 2, 3. 

2. Space. Extent of space is put iu the Accusative : as, 

fossas quindecim pedes latas (B. G. vii. 72), trenches i;^ feet 
broad. 

Note. — This accusative is the object through or over which the 
action takes place, and is kindred with the accusative of the end of 
motion. 

a. Measure is often expressed as a quality by the Genitive 

(§ 50, I, h) : as, 

vallo pedum duodecim (B. G. ii. 30), in a rampart of 12 feet 
[in height]. 

h. Distance is put in the Accusative (^Sis extent of space), or 
Ablative (as degree of difference) : as, 

quinque dierum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), it is distant five days' 

march. 
triginta milibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G.vi.35), thirty 

miles below that place- 
tanto spatio secuti (B. G. iv. 35), havitigfollozved over so 7nuch 

ground. 

3l« Place. To express relations of Place, prepositions 

are necessary, except with the names of Towns and small 

Islands ; except also with domus, rus, and a few other words 

in special relations. 

Note. — Originally these relations were expressed with all words 
by the cases alone, — the Accusative denoting the end of motion as in 
a certain sense the object of the action ; and the Ablative (in its proper 
meaning of separation) denoting the place from which. For the place 
where there was a special case, the Locative, the form of which was 
partially retained and partially merged in the Ablative (see Note, 
p. 134). The Prepositions (originally Adverbs) were added to define 
more exactly the direction of the motion, and by long usage at length 
became necessary, except in the cases given above. 

a. The name of the place from which is in the Ablative : as, 

Rom^ profectus, having set out from Rome. 
rure reversus, having returned from the country. 

b. The name of the place to which is in the Accusative : as, 

Romam rediit, he returned to Rome. 
rus ibo, I shall go into the country. 

Remark. — The old construction is retained in the phrases 
exsequias ire, to attend a funeral; infitms ire, to maJce denial ; 
pessum ire, to go to ruin ; pessum dare, to undo ; venum dare 
(vendere), to set to sale ; venum ire, to he set to sale; foras, out 
of doors; and the Supine in um (see § 74, i). 



55: 3,4] TIME AND PLACE. 145 

Cm The name of the place where takes the Locative form, which 
in the first and second declensions singular is the same as the 
genitive ; in the plural, and in the third declension, the same as the 
dative: as, 

Homae, at Rome ; Corinthi, at Corinth ; Lanuvi, at Lanuvium ; 
Karthagini, at Carthage; Athenis, at Athens; Curibus, 
at Cures, 

Remark. — In names of ^the third declension the ablative is 
often found, especially where the metre requires it in poetry : as, 

Tibure vel Gabiis (Hor. Ep. ii. 2), a^ Tibur or Gahii, 

d. The words domi (rarely domui) , at home ; belli, militiae 
(in contrast to domi) , abroad in military service ; humi, on the 
ground ; ruri, in the country ; foris, out-of-doors ; terra marique, 
^y land and sea, are used like names of towns, without a prep- 
osition; alsoheri, vesperi, infelici arbori (Liv.). 

e. A possessive, or alienus, may be used with domus in this 
construction ; but when it is modified in any other way, a preposi- 
tion is generally used : as, 

domi suae (Mil. 7), at his own house. 

in M. Laecae domum (Cat. i. 4), to Lceca's house. 

/. The ablative is used without a preposition to denote the 
place where, in many general words — as loco, parte — regu- 
larly; frequently with nouns when qualified by adjectives (reg- 
ularly where totus is used) ; and in poetry in any case : as, 

quibus loco positis (De Or. iii. 38), ivhen these are ;put in their 

places, 
qua parte victi erant (Att. ix. 11), on the side -where they were 

beaten, 
se oppido tenet (id.), keeps himself -within the town, 
media urbe (Liv. i. 33), /« the midst of the city, 
tota Sicilia (Verr. iv. 23), throughout Sicily, 
litore curvo (^n. iii. 16), 07i the bending shore. 

Remark. — To denote the neighborhood of a place (to, from, 
in the neighborhood) , prepositions must be used. 

4, The way hy which is put in the Ablative (of instru- 
ment) : as, 

via breviore equites praemisi (Fam. x. 9), / sent forward the 

cavalry by a shorter road. 
-^geo mari trajecit (Liv. xxxvii. 14), 7ie crossed by way of the 

.^gean sea, 

7 



146 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [56: I. 

66. Use of Prepositions. 

1. Prepositions govern either the Accusative or Ablative. 

a. The following govern the Accusative : — ad, adversus, ad- 
versum, ante, apud, circa, or circum, circiter, cis, citra, con- 
tra, erga, extra, infra, inter, intra, juxta, ob, penes, per, 
pone, post, praeter, prope, propter, secundum, supra, 
trans, ultra, versus. 

h. The following govern the Ablative : — a, ab, abs, absque, 
coram, cum, de, e, ex, prae, pro, sine, tenus. 

c. In and sub take the Accus^ive when they denote motion ; 

when rest, the Ablative : as, 

in contionem venit (Off. iii. ii), he came into the meeting, 
dixit in contione (ib.), he said in the ineetiiig. 
sub jugum mittere (Cses.), to send tinder the yoke. 
sub monte consedit (id.), he halted below the hill. 

Remark. — The verbs oi placing , — such as pono and its com- 
pounds (except impono), loco, statuo, &c., — though implying 
motion, take in Latin the construction of the place in which: as, 

qui in sede ac domo collocavit (Parad. iii. 2), zvho j)ut one 
into his j)lace a7id home. 

d. When it means concerning, super takes the Ablative ; other- 
wise the Accusative (unless in poetry) : as, 

hac super re (Cic), co7icerning this thing. 
super culmina tecti (Virg.), above the house-top. 

e. After subter, the Accusative is used, except sometimes in 

poetry: as, 

subter togam (Li v.), under his mantle, 
subter litore (Catull.), below the shore, 

f. In Dates, the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, 
or the ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposi- 
tion ; and the phrase itself may be governed by a preposition : as, 

is dies erat a.d. quintum kalendas Aprilis (B. G. i. 6), that day 
'Was the ^th before the calends of April [March 28]. 

in a.d. v. kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 3), to the ^th day before the calends 
of November [Oct. 28]. 

XV. kal. Sextilis, the 15th day before the calends of August 
(July 18). [Full form, quittto die ante,'] 

g» Tenus (which follows its noun) regularly takes the Abla- 
tive: as, 

Tauro tenus (Mil. 13), as far as Taurus. 
capulo tenus (^n. v. 55), up to the hilt. 



56: I, 2, 3, 4.] PREPOSITIONS. 147 

Remark. — Tenus is found especially with the feminine of the 
adjective pronouns, in an adverbial sense : as, 

hactenus, hitherto ; quatenus, so far as, &c. 
Sometimes it takes the Genitive : as, 

Corcjrae tenus (Li v. xxv. 24), as far as Corey r a. 

2. Many words may be construed either as Prepositions 
or as Adverbs : thus — 

a. The adverbs pridie, postridie, propius, proxime, usque 
— also (less frequently) the adjectives propior and proximus — 
may be followed by the Accusative : as, 

pridie Nonas Junias (Cic), the day before the Nones of June 

(June 4). 
postridie ludos (id.), the day after the games. 

h. The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may take the Abla- 
tive : as, 

palam populo (Liv.), in the presence of the people. 

C. The adverb clam may take either case (very rare) : as, 

clam matrem suam (Plaut.), unbeknow7i to the mother, 

clam mihi (id.), in secret from me. 

clam vobis (Caes.), without your kjiowledge. 

cl. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Adverbs. 
This is especially the case with ante and post, in relations of 
ti7ne; adversus, contra (on the other hand) , circiter, prope, and, 
in general, those ending in a. Clam and versus are often ex- 
cluded from the list of Prepositions. 

[For the use of prepositions in Composition, see § 42, 3.] 

3. Some prepositions or adverbs which imply comparison 

are followed, like comparatives, by quam, — several words, 

or even clauses, sometimes coming between : as, 

neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. xxxix. 10), 
fior did he let him go U7itil he gave a pledge. 

Such words are ante, prius, post, pridie, postridie. 

4. The ablative, with a or ab, is regularly used after pas- 
sive verbs to denote the Agent, if a person, or if spoken of as 
a person (§ 54, 4) : as, 

jussus a patre, bidde?i by his father. 



148 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: I, 2. 

Remark. — The ablative of the agent (which requires the prep- 
osition) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of 
instrument, which stands by itself: as, 

occisus gladio, slain by a sword ; but, 
occisus ab hoste, slain by ati enefny. 

5. The following prepositions sometimes follow their noun : — 
ad, citra, circa, contra, inter, penes, propter, ultra, tenus ; 
e, de, juxta. 

[For the so-called Dative of the Agent, with the Gerundive, see 
§§ 51, 4, a.-\ 



III. Syntax of the Verb. 

57. Use of Moods. 
(See § 24.) . 

The Moods of a Latin Verb are the Indicative, 
Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive. 

Note. — The Infinitive is not strictly a mood, being only the 
oblique case of a noun ; but it is most conveniently treated along with 
the moods! 

1. Indicative. The Indicative is the mood of direct 
assertions or questions ; and is used when no special construc- 
tion requires one of the others. 

2. Subjunctive. The Subjunctive is used in special con- 
structions, both in dependent and independent clauses, viz.: — 

a. Independent Clauses. 1. In independent clauses, the 
subjunctive is used to denote an Exhortation or Command (Jior^ 
tatory subjunctive) ; a Wish (optative subjunctive) ; a Concession 
{concessive subjunctive) ; or a Doubtful Question (dubitative 
subjunctive). 

2. It is also used to denote the conclusion of a Conditional 
sentence (japodosis), which is, grammatically, an independent 
clause, though logically depending on a condition expressed or 
implied (see §§ 59, 60). 

h. Dependent Clauses. In dependent clauses, the subjunc- 
tive is used to denote a Purpose (§ 64), or a Result (§ 65). It 



57: 2,3] USE OF MOODS: SUBJUNCTIVE. 149 

is used, idiomatically, in Temporal Clauses (§ 62), in Indirect 
Discourse (§ 67) , in Indirect Questions (id.), and in Intermediate 
Clauses (§ 66). 

[For Subjunctive after Particles of Comparison, see § 61.] 

[For the so-called Subjunctive of Cause, see § 63.] 

Note. — The Present Subjunctive contains two distinct forms, — 
the Subjunctive and Optative of the "Indo-European" tongue. Both 
these forms had originally a. future meaning ; and from these future 
meanings all the uses of this mood in Latin are developed. The 
sahjnnctive propei^ was originally a Present, denoting continued action, 
wliich became Future in sense (compare conative present and present 
for future, § 58, 2, 6) ; and afterwards, in many uses, Imperative (com- 
pare future for imperative). The optative contains, in composition, a 
past tense of the root i (whence eo, elfn, go) ; so that it had 2i futurum 
in prceterito meaning, which developed into a conditional future, and into 
an expressive of wish and command; and, in Latin, lost its connection 
with past time. 

The other tenses of the Subjunctive are compounds formed (in 
Latin alone) to remedy the confusion of optative and subjunctive. 
The Subjunctive has, therefore, the uses of both the optative and 
subjunctive of the cognate languages. 

, 3. Hortatory Subjunctive. The subjunctive is used 
in the Present — less commonly in the Perfect — to express 
a command or exhortation : as, 

hos latrones interficiamus (B. G. vii. 38), le^ us kill these 

robbers. 
aut bibat aut abeat (Tusc. v. 41), let him quaff or quit. 
caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundice (Off. i. 34), 

let them shun excess and cherish modesty. 
Epicurus hoc viderit (Acad. ii. 7), let Epicurus look to this. 
his quoque de rebus pauca dicantur (Off. i. 35), of this, too, let 

a few -words be said. 

Note. — The Perfect represents an action as complete in the future; 
but in most cases it can hardly be distinguished from the Present. 

a* The Second Person is used only of an indefinite subject, 
except in prohibition, in early Latin, and in poetry : as, 

injurias fortunae, quas ferre nequeas, defugiendo relinquas 
(Tusc. V. 41), the 'wro7igs of for tu fie, ivhich you ca7t?iot bear, 
you -will leave behind by flight. 

nihil ignoveris (Mur. 31), pardon nothing. 

amicus populo Romano sis (Liv. xxvi. 50), be a friend to the 
Romaji people. 



150 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 3, 4. 

&. In prohibitions, the Perfect is more common than the Pres- 
ent : as, 

hoc facito : hoc ne feceris (Div. ii. 61), thou shall do Ihis : thou 

shall ?iol do Ihal. 
nee mihi illud dixeris (Fin. i. 7), do not say Ihal lo me. 
ne territus fueris (Tac. H. i. 16), be 710I terrijied. 

c. The hortatory subjunctive is used — sometimes with modo, 
modo ne, tantum, tan turn ne, or ne alone — to denote a 'pro- 
viso : as, 

valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 16), if only the health be good, 
aliam condicionem tantummodo a^quam (Jug. 79), another 

condUio7i^ p7'0vided it -were just. 
modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 30), provided only he 

be 71 ot of brutish stock. 
tantummodo Gnjeus noster ne Italiam relinquat (Qj,F. iii. 9), 

if 07ily Po7npey ivill 7iot forsake Italy. 
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria 

(Cat. M. 7), old 7ne7t retain their mmd if they only retain their 

zeal a7id dilige7ice. 

d. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunc- 
tive denote an obligation in past time, — the latter more clearly 
representing the time for the action as past : as, 

moreretur, inquies (Rab. Post.), he should have died you -will 

say. 
ne poposcisses (Att. ii. i), you should not have asked. 
potius diceret COff. iii. 22), he should rather have said. 
saltern aliquid de pondere detraxisset (Fin. iv. 20), at least he 

should have take7i something fro7n the %veight, 

4. Optative Subjunctive, The subjunctive is used to 

denote a Wish, — the Present, a wish conceived as possible ; 

the Imperfect, an unaccomplished one in the present; the 

Pluperfect, one unaccomplished in the past : as, 

ita vivam (Att. v. 15), so may I live [as true as I live]. 

ne vivam si scio (id. iv. 16), I wish 1 7nay 7iot live if I know. 

di te perduint (Deiot.), the gods co7ifound thee I 

valeant, valeant, cives mei ; valeant. sint incolumes (Mil. 34), 

farewell [he says], my fellow -citize7is ; 7nay they be secure 

fro7n ha r 771. 

€1* The Perfect in this use is antiquated : as, 

male di tibi faxint (Plant. Cure. 131), 77iay the gods do thee a 
i7iischief 



57: 4j 5-] USE OF MOODS: SUBJUNCTIVE. 151 

6. The particles uti (ut), utinam, O si, often precede the 

Subjunctive of wish : as, 

falsus utinam vates sim (Liv. xxi.), I -wish I may he a false 
prophet, 

ut pereat positum rubigine telum (Hor. Sat. ii. i), may the un- 
used weapon perish with rust. 

utinam me mortuum vidisses (Q^Fr. i. 3), would you had seen 
me dead. 

Note. — In this use, the particle has no effect on the grammatical 
construction, except that O si is probably a Protasis. 

c. VeUin with the present subjunctive, and veUem with the 
imperfect qr pluperfect — with their compounds — (strictly, con- 
ditional sentences with the wish in a dependent clause) are often 
used instead of a proper optative subjunctive : as, 

de Menedemo vellem verum fuisset, de regina velim varum sit 
(Att. iv. 16), about Mendemus I ivish it had been true.; about 
the queen I hope it may be. 

nollem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10), I wish the time never 
had come. 

5. Concessive Subjunctive. The subjunctive is used 
to express a concession, either with or without ut, quamviSy 
quamlibet, and similar words. 

Remark. — In this use, the Present refers to future or indefinite 
time ; the Imperfect to present or past time, — the concession being 
impliedly untrue ; the Perfect to past time or completed future 
time; the Pluperfect to completed action in past time (usually 
untrue) : as, 

nemo is unquam fuit : ne fuerit (Or. 29), there never was such 

a one you will say : granted. 
quamvis comis in amicitiis tuendis fuerit (Fin. ii. 25), amiable 

as he may have been in keeping his friendships. 
sit Scipio clarus, ornetur African us, erit profecto aliquid loci 

riostrae (Cat. iv. 10), let Scipio be glorious., and Africanus 

honored^ yet surely there will be some room for our fame. 
dixerit hoc idem Epicurus . . . non pugnem cum homine (Fin. 

V. 27), though Epicurus may have said the sajne, I zvould not 

co7itend zvith the man, 
ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est (Tusc. ii. 5), 

gratited that pain is not the greatest evil^ at least it is 

an evil. 
fuerit aliis : tibi quando esse coepit (Verr. i. 4r). sup-pose he was 

[so] to others^ when did he begin to be to you P 



152 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57:6,7. 

6. The Present, and rarely the Perfect Subjunctive, are 
used in questions implying doubt, indignation, or an impossi- 
bility of the thing being done (dubitative subjunctive) : as, 

sed quid faciamus (Att. viii. 23), but what can Tve do f 

quid loquar plura (Pis. 32), -why should I say more f 

quid hoc homine faciatis (Verr. ii. 16), what are you to do with 

this fellow f 
cui ego exspectem dum tabellse diribeantur (Pis. 40), what, 

shall I wait till the ballots are counted f 
quis enim celaverit ignem (Ov. Her. xv. 7), who could conceal 

the flame ? 

The Imperfect denotes the same idea in past time : as, 

an ego non venirem (Phil. ii. 2), what, should I not have come ? 
quid dicerem (Att. vi. 3), what was I to say P 

7. Imperative. The Imperative is used in Commands ; 
also, by early writers and poets, in Prohibitions : as, 

consulite vobis, prospicite patriae, conservate vos (Cat. iv. 2), 
have care for yourselves, guard the country, j>reserve your- 
selves, \7nuch, 

nimium ne crede colori (Eel. ii. 17), trust not complexion over- 

ad me fac venias (Fam. xiv. 4), do come to me* 

u* Prohibitions are regularly (in classical Latin) expressed by 
ne with the second person singular of the Perfect Subjunctive ; by 
noli with the Infinitive ; or by cave (coUoquiaUy fac ne) with the 
Present or Perfect Subjunctive : as, 

ne territus fueris (Tac. H. i. 16), be not frightened. 
noli putare (Brut. 33), do not suppose. 
cave faxis (Ter. Heaut. 187), do not do it. 

fac ne quid aliud cures (Fam. xvi. 11), pray attend to nothing 
else. 

h» In early Latin, in poetry, and in general prohibitions, the 
Present Subjunctive is also used : as, 

Albi ne doleas (Hor. Od. i. 33), grieve not, Albius. 

denique isto bono utare dum adsit : cum absit ne requiras (Cat. 

M 10), in short, use this good while present ; when wanting, 

do not regret it. 

Remark. — The tliird person of the Imperative is antiquated 
or poetic. 

ollis salus populi suprema lex esto (id.), the safety of the people 

shall be their first law. 
justa imperia sunto, iisque cives modeste parento (Leg. iii. 3), 

let the commands be just, and let the citizens strictly obey them. 



57: 7j 8.] USE OF moods: infinitive. 153 

€• The Future Imperative is used where there is a distinct 
reference to the J^uture time: viz. . 

!• In connection with 2i future or future-perfect ; 
2* With adverbs or other expressions of time ; 

3. In general directions^ as Precepts, Statutes, Edicts, and 
Wills : as, 

cum valetudini consulueris, turn consulito navigationi (Fam. 
xvi. 4), ivken you have attended to your healthy the7i look to 
your sailing. 

rei suae ergo ne quis legatus esto (J^^^^^ no one shall be ambas- 
sador in his 0'iv?i affair. 

Kemark. — The future form of the imperative is regularly used 
of scio, memini, and habeo (in the sense of consider) : as, 

filiolo me auctum scito (Att. i. 2), learn that I am blessed with 

a little boy. 
sic habeto, mi Tiro (Fam. xvi. 4), so understand it ^ my good 

Tiro. 
de palla memento, amabo (F\. K^m.^, pray, dear ^remetnber 

the gow7t. 

d. The Future is sometimes used for the imperative ; and quin 
{why not ?) with the present indicative may have the force of an 
imperative : as, 

si quid acciderit novi, facies ut sciam (Fam. xiv. S),youwill let 

me k?iovj if a7tything new happens, ♦ 

quin accipis.? (Ter. Heaut. iv. 7), here, take it. 

8. Infinitive* The Infinitive denotes the action of the 
verb as an abstract noun., differing, however, from other 
abstract nouns in the following points: — (1) It admits, in 
many cases, of the distinction of tense ; (2) It is modified by 
adverbs and not by adjectives ; (3) It governs the case of its 
verb ; (4) It is only used in special constructions. 

Note. — The Infinitive is properly the Dative case of an abstract 
noun, denoting Purpose, which has developed in Latin, in many cases, 
into a substitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use. Its 
Subject is, strictly, the Object of some other verb, which has become 
attaclied to it: as, jubeo te valere, lit., 1 command you for being ivell 
(i.e. that you may be well) ; just as, in Purpose-clauses, the purpose 
becomes the object of command (compare Purpose Clauses, § 64). 

a. Infinitive as Subject. The infinitive, with or without a 
subject accusative, may be used as the Subject of a verb (or in 
predicate apposition), and, rarely, as the Object : as, 

7* 



154 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 8. 

nihil est aliud [hominem] bene et beate vivere. nisi honeste 
et recte vivere (Parad. i. 6), to live well and hapfily^ is noth- 
ing else than to live honorably a7id rightly. 

invidere non cadit in sapientem (Tusc. iii. lo), envy does not 
belong to a wise man. 

est human itatis vestrae . . . prohibere (Man. 7), it is for your 
humanity to hold safe^ &c. 

nam istuc ipsum no7i esse cum fueris miserrimum puto (Tusc. 
i. 6)^ for I think this very thing fnost wretched, ?iot to be when 
07ie has beefi. 

In this use, the infinitive is found chiefly with esse and impersonal 
verbs, — rarely with others. 

&. The infinitive is used with many Impersonal verbs and ex- 
pressions, partly as subject and partly as complement (see Note 
below) : as, 

te abundare oportet prgeceptis (OiF. i. i), you must abound in 

maxims. 
id primum in poetis cerni licet (De Or. iii. 7), this may be seen 

first in poets. 
reperiebat quid dici opus asset (Brut. 59), he found what needed 

to be said. 
hsec praescripta servantem licet magnifice vivere (Off. i. 26), 

07ie who observes these precepts may live itobly. 
proponis quam sit turpe me adesse (Att. ix. 2), you make it 

clear how base it is for me to be present. 

€• Complementary Infinitive. The infinitive, without a 

subject, is used with verbs which require another action of tJie 

same subject to complete their meaning. Such are verbs denoting 

to be able, dare, undertake, remember, forget, be accustomed, begin, 

continue, cease, hesitate, learn, knoiv how, fear, and the like : as, 

hoc queo dicere (Cat. M. 10), this I can say. 
mitto quaerere (Rose. Am ), I omit to ask. \_otvn presence, 

vereor laudare prsesentem (N. D. i. 21), I fear to praise in ones 
oro ut matures venire (Att. iv. i), pray make haste to come. 

Note. — The mark of this construction is that no Subject of these 
infinitives is admissible or conceivable ; though the same verbs, in 
other senses, may take an infinitive with a subject. 

d. The infinitive is used optionally with many verbs which also 
take a subjunctive clause (§ 70) : such are those signifying willing- 
ness, necessity, propriety, resolve, command, prohibition, effort, and 
the like. The subject is usually, though not always, omitted, when 
it is the same as that of the principal verb : as, 

quos tueri debent deserunt (Off. i. 9), they forsake those whom 

they should protect. 
Atticos volo imitari (Brut. 82), I wish to imitate the Attics. 



57: 8.] USE OF moods: infinitive. 155 

student excellere (Off. i. 32), they aim to excel. 

istum exheredare in animo habebat (Rose Am. 18), he had it 

ill mi7id to deprive him of the inheritance. 
cupio me esse clementem [= cupio esse clemens] (Cat. i. 2), 

/ desire to be merciful. 

Some of these verbs — jubeo and veto regularly — may take the 

infinitive with another subject : as, 

signa inferri jubet (Liv. xlii. 59), he orders the sta?idards to 
be borne forivard. 

Note. — This construction, though in many cases different from 
the two preceding, shades off imperceptibly into them. In none of 
the uses is the infinitive strictly Subject or Object ; but its meaning 
is developed from the original one of purpose. Hence the distinction 
between the uses is not always clearly marked. 

€• "With Subject Accusative. The infinitive, with subject 

accusative, is regularly used after verbs of knowing, thinking, 

telling, and the like (verba sentiendi et declaraiidi, § 67, i) : 

as, 

dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. i. 22), he says that the 
hill is held by the eiiemy. 

Note. — The Infinitive may thus represent, in indirect discourse, a 
finite verb in direct discourse, admitting all the variations of the verb 
except number and person (see § 67). 

Remark. — 1. With verbs which govern the dative, the subject 
of the action may be in the dative. With licet regulasly, and with 
others rarely, the predicate may also be in the dative : as, 

nemini certare cum eo necesse fuit (Liv. xxi. 11), there was 

need for nofie to strive with him. 
non libet mihi deplorare vitam (Cat. M. 23), I have 7io desire 

to bewail life. \^ge7it. 

mihi negligent! esse non licet (Att. i. 17), I must not be negli- 
non est stantibus omnibus necesse dicere (Marc. 11), it is not 

necessary for all to speak standi7ig. 
expedit bonas esse vobis (Ter. Heaut. ii. 4), // is for your 

t7iterest to be good. 

So with the dativus commodi : as, 

quid est tarn secundum naturam quam senibus emori (Cat. M. 
19), what is so according to 7iature as for old 7ne7i to die f 

2. When the subject of the infinitive is not expressed, a predi- 
cate (except after impersonals) takes the case of the subject : as, 

si esset in iis fides in quibus summa esse debebat (Fam. i. i), 
if there were faith i7i those in zuho7n it ought to be greatest. 

So, by a Greek idiom, even in Indirect Discourse : as, 

vir bonus et sapiens ait esse paratus (Hor. Ep. i. 7), a good a7id 
wise 7tia7i says he is prepared^ &c. 



156 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 8. 

sensit medios delapsus in hostes (^n. ii. 377), hefoimd himself 
falle7i amo7igst the foe, 

/. In a few cases, the infinitive retains its original meaning of 
purpose: viz. 

1* With habeo, do, ministro, in isolated passages : as, 
tantum habeo polliceri (Fam. i. 5), so much I have to promise. 

3. After the adjectives paratus, suetus, and their compounds, 
id quod parati sunt facere (Quin. 2), which they are ready to do, 

3. In poetry and later writers with any verb or adjective : as, 

durus componere versus (Hor. Sat. i. 4), harsh in composiiig 
furit te reperire (Hor. Od. i. 15), he rages to fiiid thee, {verse, 
cantari dignus (Eel. v. 54), worthy to be sung. 

Remark. — Rarely, in poetry, the infinitive is used to denote 
result. 

gr. The infinitive, with subject-accusative, may be used in Ex- 
clamations (compare § 52, 4) : as, 

mene incepto desistere victam (^n. i.37), what ! I desist beaten 

from my purpose ^ 
te in tantas aerumnas propter me incidisse (Fam. xiv. i), alas! 
that you should fall into such grief for me. 

Note. — This construction is elliptical: that is, the thought is 
quoted in Indirect Discourse, though no verb of Saying, &c., appears, 
or perhaps is thought of (compare the French dire que). 

ft* Historical Infinitive. The Infinitive is often used for the 
tenses of the Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the 
nominative : as, 

turn Catilina polliceri novas tabulas (Sail. Cat. 21), then Cati- 
line promised abolition of debts [clean ledgers]. 

ego instare ut mihi responderet (Verr. ii. 77), I pressed him to 
a7isiver. 

This usage is most frequent where many verbs are crowded 
together in rapid narrative : as, 

pars cedere, alii insequi; neque signa neque ordines servare; 
ubi quemque periculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac propulsare; 
arma, tela, equi, viri, hostes atque cives permixti; nihil 
consilio neque imperio agi ; fors omnia regere (Jug. 51), 
a part give way, others press on ; they hold neither to statt- 
dards nor ranks ; where danger overtook^ there each would 
stand and fight ; weapons, tnissiles, horses, men, foe a?id friend^ 
were mixed ; nothiiig we7it by counsel or co7nmand ; cha7ice 
ruled all. 



58; 1,2.] USE OF tenses: indicative. 157 

58. Use of Tenses. 

The Tenses are the Present, Imperfect, Future 
(of incomplete action)^ and the Perfect, Pluperfect, 
Future Perfect (of completed action). 

1. Tenses of tlie Indicative. The tenses of the In- 
dicative denote absolute time ; that is, present, past, or future, 
in reference to the Speaker. 

2, IP resent. The Present denotes an action or state, as 
now existing^ as incomplete, or as indefinite without reference 
to time ; as, 

agitur salus sociorum (Manil. 2), the safety of our allies is 

at stake, 
Senatus hsec intellegit, consul videt, hie tamen vivit (Cat. i. i), 

the Senate kiipvjs this, the consul sees, yet this ma?i lives, 
nihil est victoria dulcius (Verr. vi. 26), nothiiig is sweeter tha7i 

victory. 
tu actionem instituis, ille aciem instruit (Mur. ^t you arraitge 

a case, he arrays an army, 

a. The present, with expressions of duration of time, denotes 
an action begun in the past but continuing in the present : as, 

patimur jam multos annos (Verr. vi. 48), ive suffer now these 

many years, 
anni sunt octo cum ista causa versatur (Clu. 30), // is now eight 

years that this case has been in hand. 

5, Conative Present. The present sometimes denotes an 
action not completed at all, but only attempted : as, 

Quintus frater Tusculanum venditat (Att. i. 14), 7ny brother 
^uintus is trying to sell the place at Tusculum, 

(So the present Infinitive and Participle.) 

€• The present, especially in colloquial language, is sometimes 

used for ih^ future : as, 

imusne sessum (De Or. iii. 5), shall we take a seat f 

ecquid me adjuvas? (Clu. 26), won't you give me a little helpf 

in jus voco te. non eo. non is.^ (PI. As. 480), I summon you 

to the court, I W07it go. Tou won't /* 
si reus condemnatur, desinent homines dicere his judiciis pecu- 

niam plurimum posse (Verr. i. 2), if the prisoner is convicted, 

men will no longer say that mo7iey is the chief pozver in the 

courts. 

(See also under cura, antequam, dum § 62.) 



158 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58: 2, 3. 

d» Historical Present. The present in lively narrative is 
often used for the historical perfect : as, 

afFertur nuntius Sjracusas ; curritur ad praetorium ; Cleomenes, 
quamquam nox erat, tamen in publico esse non audet; 
includit se domi (Verr. vi. 35), the 7iews is brought to Syra- 
cuse ; they run to head-quarters; Cleomenes^ though it was 
nighty does not ve7tture to be abroad ; he shuts himself up at 
home, 

e. The present is regularly used with dum, wMle^ though re- 
ferring to past time : as, 

haec dum aguntur, interea Cleomenes jam ad Elori litus per- 
venerat (id.), tvhile this is going 07t^ Cleomeiies mean-while 
had come down to the coast at Elorum, 

But when the time referred to is contrasted with some other, the 
past tenses must be used : as, 

nee enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum videbatis (Cat. 
M. 22)^ for even when I was with you^ you did not see my soul, 

/. The present is regularly used of writers whose works are 
extant : as, 

Epicurus vero ea dicit (Tusc. ii. 7), but Epicurus says such 

things. 
apud ilium Ulysses lamentatur in vulnere (id. 21), i7i him 

[Sophocles] Ulysses bewails over his wound, 

3, Imperfect. The Imperfect denotes an action or con- 
dition continued or repeated in past time : as, 

hunc audiebant antea (Man. 5), they used to hear him before. 
Socrates ita censebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 30), Socrates 

thought so [habitually] and so he spoke [then]. 
C. Duilium redeuntem a cena senem saepe videbam (CM. 13), 

I would often see Duilius^ then old, comi?zg home from dinner. 

a. Hence the imperfect is used in descriptions : as, 

erant omnino itinera duo . . . mons altissimus impendebat 
(B. G. i 6), there were in all two ways . , . a very high moun- 
tain overhung. 

b» The imperfect is sometimes used in the sense of a pluperfect 
and imperfect combined (see above, 2, a) : as, 

copias quas diu comparabant (Fam. i. 13), the forces which 
they had loiig been getti?ig ready. 

€• The imperfect sometimes denotes an action merely attempted, 
but never accomplished (compare conative present, 2, h) : as. 



58: 3? 4, 5-] x^SE OF tenses. ' 159 

in exsilium eiciebam quern jam ingressum esse in bellum vide- 

bam (Cat. ii. 6), was 1 sending into exile one who I saiv had 

already gone into ivar P 
consules sedabant tumultus (Liv. iii. 15), t/ie consuls busied 

theinselves to calm the tumult. 
si licitum esset veniebant (Verr. vi. 49), they -were coming if it 

had bee7i allowed. 

d. The imperfect is sometimes used to express a certain sur- 
prise at t\iQ present discovery of a fact already existing : as, 

O tu quoque hie aderas, Phormio (Ter. Ph. v. 6), O, you are 

here too^ Phormio. 
ehem pater mi, tu hie eras.? (PL id. v. 7), what, you here, 

father P 
ah miser ! quanta laborabas Charybdi (Hor. Od. i. 27), unhappy 

boy, what a whirlpool you are struggliftg i7i [and I never 

knew it]. 

e. The imperfect is often used in narration by the comic poets, 
where later writers would employ the perfect: as, 

ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mand^sse hie suam (Trin. 

956), to his friend Callicles, to -whom, he said, he had intrusted 

his property. 
praesagibat animus frustra me ire quom exibam domo (Aul. 

222), my 7ni?id mistrusted when I %vent from home that I went 

in vain. 

The Imperfect Indicative in Apodosis, contrary to fact, regularly 
refers to present time (see § 59, 3, c?). 

4. Future. The Future denotes an action or condition 
that will occur hereafter. 

[For Future instead of the Imperative, see § 57, 7, cZ.] 

5. JP erf ecu The Perfect definite denotes an action as 
now completed ; the Perfect historical, as having taken place 
indefinitely, in past time : as, 

ut ego feci, qui Grsecas litteras senex didici (C. M. 8), as I have 

done, who have learned Greek in my old age. 
tantum bellum extremA hieme apparavit, imeunte vere suscepit, 

media aestate confecit (Man. 12), so great a war he made 

ready for at the e?id of winter, mtdertook iii early spring, and 

finished by midsummer. 

[For the difference between the Perfect and Imperfect in nar- 
ration, see Note, page 53.] 



160 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58: 5,6. 

a. The perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that 
something no longer exists : as, 

fuit ista quondam in hac re publica virtus (Cat. i. i), there tvas 

07tce suck virtue in this co7n7^onwealth» 
fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (^n. ii. 325), ive were Trojans, Ilium 

did exist, 
habuit, non habet (Tusc. i. 36), he had, he has no longer. 

b. The perfect is sometimes used of indefinite time in connec- 
tion with a general present : as, 

qui in compedibus corporis semper fuerunt, etiam cum soluti 
sunt tardius ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 31), they -who have always 
been in fetters of the body, even whe?i released move more 
slowly, 

€• The perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, especially 
with negations : as, 

qui studet contingere metam multa tulit fecitque (Hor. A. P. 

412), he who aims to reach the goal, first bears and does ma7iy 

things. 
non seris acervus et auri deduxit corpora febres (id. Ep. i. 2), 

the ^ile of brass and gold removes ?iot the fever from the 

frame. 

d* The perfect is often used in expressions containing or im- 
plying a negation, where in affirmation the imperfect would be pre- 
ferred : as, 

dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius (Or. 38), Hortensius 
spoke better tka?i ke wrote. [Here the negative is implied in 
the comparison : compare the use of quisquam, ullus. &c. 
(foot of p. 48), and the French ne after comparatives and 
superlatives.] 

[For Perfect in apodosis of future conditions, see § 59, 4, e; 
for Perfect after ubi, &c., § 62, 2, a.] 

Remark. — The Perfect and Pluperfect of a few verbs are 
equivalent to the Present and Imperfect of kindred verbs (novi, 
/ know; coepi, / begin; memini, / remember; cognoveram, 
I knew ; venerat (== aderat), he was at hand (see § 36, i) : as, 

qui dies aestus maximos efficere consuevit (B. G. iv. 29), wkick 

day ge?ierally makes the highest tides. 
cujus splendor obsolevit (Quinc. v. 18), whose splendor is now 

out of date, 

6. JPluperfect. The Pluperfect is used to denote an 
action completed in time past ; sometimes, also, repeated in 
indefinite time : as, 



58: 7"I0-] X^SE OF TENSES. 161 

neque vero cum aliquid mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat. 

iii. 7), for ivhen he had given a thing in charge he did not 

look on it as already done. 
quae si quando adepta est id quod ei fuerat concupitum, turn 

fert alacritatem (Tusc. iv. 15), if it [desire] ever has gained 

tvhat it had desired^ then it produces joy. 

'^. Future Perfect, The Future Perfect denotes an 
action as completed in the future : as, 

ut sementem feceris ita metes (Or. ii. 65), as you sow, so shall 
you reap. 

Remark. — The Future Perfect is used (as above) with much 
greater exactness in Latin than in English, and may even be used 
instead of the Future, from the fondness of the Latins for repre- 
senting an action as completed : as, 

quid inventum sit paulo post videro (Acad. ii. 24), -what has 

been found out I ivill see presently. 
ego certe meum officium prsestitero (B. G. iv. 25), / at least 

shall have done my duty. 

8. Epistolary Tenses, In Letters, the perfect (his- 
torical) or imperfect may be used for the present, and the plu- 
perfect for pa§t tenses, as if the letter were dated at the time 
it is supposed to be received: as, 

neque tamen, cum hsec scribebam, eram nescius quantis oneri- 
bus premerere (Fam. v. 12), nor -while I write this am I 
ignorant U7ider what burdens you are weighed. 

ad tuas omnes [epistulas] rescripseram pridie (Att. ix. 10), / 
[have] answered all your letters yesterday. 

9. Tenses of the Subjunctive. The tenses of the Sub- 
junctive denote Absolute time only in independent clauses. 
In these the Present always refers to future time ; the Imper- 
fect to either past or present ; the Perfect to either future or 
past ; the Pluperfect always to past. 

In dependent clauses^ the tenses of the Subjunctive denote 
Relative time, not with reference to the speaker, but to the 
action of some other verb. 

10. Sequence of Tenses* The forms which denote 
absolute time may be used in any connection. But those 
denoting relative time follow special rules for the Sequence 
of Tenses. For this purpose, tenses are divided into two 
classes: viz.. 



162 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58: 10. 

1. Primary, including the Present, both Futures, and Perfect 
Qiejinite) ; 

2. Secondary, including the Imperfect, Perfect (historical), 
and Pluperfect. 

Rule. — In compound sentences, a Primary tense in the 
leading clause is followed by a Primary tense in the dependent 
clause ; and a Secondary tense is followed by a Secondary : as, 

scribit ut nos moneat, he writes to warn us, 

scribet ut nos moneat, he will write to warn us, 

scripsit ut nos moneat, he has written to warn us, 

scribe (scribito) ut nos moneas, write that you may warn us, 

scripsit ut nos moneret, he wrote to warn us, 

scribit quasi oblitus sit, he writes as if he had forgotten. 

scripsit quasi oblitus esset, he wrote as if he had forgotten, 

Kemark. — The Rule appears in the following Diagram : — 



TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Primary. 

1. Action not complete (time rela- \ po^^pi^rp 

tiYely present or future). f 

2. Action complete (time relatively > Perfect 

past), ) 



Secondary, 
Imperfect. 



Pluperfect. 



In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, consider (1) 
whether the leading verb is primary or secondary ; (2) whether the 
dependent verb is required to denote complete action (i.e. rela- 
tively past), or incomplete (relatively present or future) . By tak- 
inor the corresponding tense, as given above, the correct usage 
will generally be found. 

Notice that the Future Perfect denotes relatively completed 
action, and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the Per- 
fect or Pluperfect. 

a. The -perfect definite is properly a primary tense ; but as its 
action is (at least) commenced in past time, it is more commonly 
followed by secondary tenses : as, 

ut satis esset prsesidi provisum est (Cat. ii. 12), provision has 

been made that there should be amj)le guard. 
adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus possetis 

(Verr. i. i), / hai^e brought a 7na7i in zvhose person you can 

make satisfaction to foreign nations, 

h* The perfect subjunctive is regularly used to denote any past 
action (either as Perfect definite or historical) depending on a verb 
in a primary tense : as, 



58: 10.] USE OF TENSES. 163 

ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens fuerit Platonis auditor 
(Or. 4), it may be luiderstood from his letters how consta7it a 
hearer he ivas of Plato. 

c. In clauses of Result, the perfect subjunctive is very often 
(the present rarely) used after secondary tenses : as, 

Hortensius ardebat dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nullo unquam 
flagrantius studium viderim (Brut. 88), Hortensius ivas so hot 
with desire of speaking that I never sazu a juore burni7tg 
ardor in any man. 

Sicilian! Verres per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit, ut ea 
restitui in antiquum statum nullo modo possit (Verr. i. 4), 
for three years [Verres] so racked a7id ruined Sicily, that she 
cajt in no way be restored to her former state. 

Remark. — This construction gives more emphasis to the fact 
stated as a result ; while the regular one gives more prominence 
to the main clause. The perfect, thus used, can stand only for a 
'perfect indicative, not an imperfect ; and, in general, the perfect is 
often represented by the perfect subjunctive, contrary to the 
general rule : as, 

Thorius erat ita non superstitiosus ut ilia plurima in sua pa- 
tria et sacrificia et fana contemneret; ita non timidus ad 
mortem ut in acie sit ob rem publicam interfectus (Fin. ii. 
20), Thorius was so little superstitious that he despised [con- 
temnebat] the many sacrifices a7id shri7ies in his coiuitry. so 
little ti7norous about death that he was killed [interfectus est] 
in battle^ i7i defe7ice of the state. 

Zeno nullo modo is erat qui nervos virtutis inciderit [compare 
5, d~\ ; sed contra qui omnia in una virtute poneret (Acad. i. 
10), Ze7io was noway 07ie to cut the si7iews of virtue ; but 07ie, 
071 the contrary, who made everythi7ig depend on virtue alo7ie. 

d» A general truth after a past tense follows the connection 
of tenses in Latin (though not usually in English) : as, 

ex his quae tribuisset sibi quam mutabilis esset reputabat (C^C. 

iii. 9), from what she [Fortune] had bestowed on hi7?t, he re- 
flected how i7ico7ista7it she is. 
ibi quantam vim ad stimulandos animos ira haberet, apparuit 

(Liv. xxxiii. 37), here it appeared what power a7iger has to 

goad the 7nind. 

Co The historical present, or the present with dum, may be 
followed by either primary or secondary tenses, but more com- 
monly by secondary : as, 

rogat ut curat quod dixisset (Quinct- 5), he asks hi7n to atte7id to 

the thing he had spoke7i of. 
castella communit quo facilius prohiberi possent (B. G. i. 8), 

he stre7igthe7is the forts that they 7night be 7nore easily kept 

off. 



164 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58: 10, II. 

/• When the secondary tenses of the subjunctive are used in 

protasis and apodosis, they may stand after any tense : as, 

quia tale sit, ut vel si ignorarent id homines, &c. (Fin. ii. 15), 
because it is suck that even if men were ignorant. 

g* The imperfect subjunctive, in protasis or apodosis, even 
when it refers to present time, is regularly followed by secondary 
tenses : as, 

si solos cos diceres miseros quibus moriendum asset, neminem 
exciperes (Tusc. i. 5), if you called 07ily those -wretched -who 
must die, you would except no one, 

li* After the present, when a past tense appears to be in the 
writer^s thought, secondary tenses sometimes follow by a kind of 
Synesis : as, 

sed tamen ut scires hsec tibi scribo (Fam. xiii. 47), but yet that 

you may know, I write thus [as if Epistolary Imperfect], 
cujus praecepti tanta vis est ut ea non homini cuipiam sed 
Delphico deo tribueretur (l^eg. i. 22), such is the force of this 
precept, that it was ascribed not to any man, but to the Del- 
phic god [the precept was an old one]. 

!!• Infinitive, The tenses of the Infinitive are present, 
past, or future, relatively to the time of the verb on which 
they depend : as, 

nostros non esse inferiores intellexit (B. G. ii. 8), he ascertained 

that our 7ne7t xvere not inferior. 
quam Juno fertur terris magis omnibus coluisse (^En. i. 15), 

'which Juno, 'tis said, cherished above all lands. 
sperant se maximum fructum esse capturos (Lsel. 21), they hope 

they shall receive the greatest advantage. 

a* The present infinitive, after a verb in the past, must often 
be rendered by the perfect infinitive in English : as, 
scire potuit (Milo, 17), he might have known. 
qui videbatur omnino mori non debuisse (Arch. 8), who seemed 
[one that] ought not to have died at all. 

Kemark. — This is most frequent with verbs of necessity, pro- 
priety, and possibility (potui, debui, oportuit) ; and occurs 
because the tenses of the corresponding verbs in English have lost 
their original past signification (compare '* one whom he ought 
[owed] a grudge unto," a.d. 1597). 

fe. Mexuini and a few other verbs, stating what the speaker 

has personally witnessed, take the present infinitive : as, 

memini Catonem mecum disserere (Lsel. 3), I retnember Cato's 
discoursing with me (So dicere aiebat, De Or. ii. 3.) 
Compare Greek present infinitive for imperfect (G. 203, N. i). 

Remark. — The infinitive posse is used also in the sense of a 
future. 



58: II.] USE OF TENSES. 165 

C. Except in Indirect Discourse the present infinitive only is 
generally used, with no distinct reference to time : as, 

est adulescentis majores natu vereri (Off. i. 34), it is the duty 
of the you7ig to reverence their elders, 

de quibus dicere aggrediar (Off. ii. i), of -which I will under- 
take to speak, 

di After verbs of wishing, necessity, and the like, the perfect 
passive infinitive is often used instead of the present : as, 

domestica cura te levatum [esse] volo (C^F. iii. 9), / wish you 

relieved of household care, 
liberis consultum volumus propter ipsos (Fin. iii. 17), we wish 

regard paid to children o?i their ow?i account, 
quod jampridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 2), which ought 

to have been done long ago. 

Remark. — In early Latin, and in poetry, the perfect active is 
also used, and even after other verbs than those of wishing : as, 

commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he is cautious of doing. 
edixerunt ne quis quid fugse caus^ vendidisse neve emisse 

vellet (Liv. xxxix. 17), they [the old laws] declared that none 

should sell or buy to escape obligation, 
baud equidem premendo alium me extulisse velim (id.xxii. 59), 

/ would not by crushing another exalt myself 
sunt qui nolint tetigisse (Hor. Sat. i. 2), there are those who 

would not touch. 
noUem dixisse (Verr. v. 20), I would not say, 

e. The perfect infinitive is used, especially by poets, to denote 
a completed action after verbs of feeling ; also with satis est 
(habeo), melius est, contentus sum, and in a few other cases 
where this distinction is important : as, 

quiesse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), it will be better to have kept 

quiet. 
non poenitebat intercapedinem scribendi fecisse (Fam. xvi. 21), 

I was 7iot sorry to have made a respite of writing. 
pudet me . . , non praestitisse (id. xiv. 3), I am ashamed not to 

have shown, 
sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum collegisse juvat (Hor. 

Od. i. i), there are those who delight, &c. 
majus dedecus est parta amittere quam omnino non paravisse 

(Jug. 31), it is more discredit to have lost ofie's gains than 

never to have gained at all, 
nil ego si peccem possum nescisse (Ov. Her. xvii. 47), if I go 

wrong, I cannot have done it i7i ignorance, 

f. The future infinitive is often expressed by fore or futu- 
rum esse ut (§ 70, 4) : as, 

spero fore ut contingat id nobis (Tusc. i.), I hope that will be 
our happy lot. 



166 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [59: I. 



59. Conditional Sentences. 

A Conditional Sentence (or Clause) is one beginning 
with IP, or some equivalent. 

1. Protasis and Apodosis. In a conditional sentence, 
the clause containing the condition is called the Protasis ; and 
that containing the conclusion is called the Apodosis : as, 

si qui exire volunt [protasis], conivere possum [apodosis] 
(Cat. ii. 12), if any vjish to depart^ I can keep my eyes shut, 

a. The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional 
particles si, if; sin, hut if; nisi (ni), unless. But a clause in- 
troduced . by an Indefinite Relative (as quisquis, whoever), a 
Relative or Concessive Conjunction (cum, since, quamvis, al- 
though), a Participle, or an Imperative, is treated as a conditional 
clause : as, 

qusecunque causa vos hue attulisset, Isetarer (De Or. ii. 4), 
I should be glad, whatever cause had brought you here [i.e. if 
any other, as well as the one which did]. 

philosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempus aetatis sine molestia 
possit degere (Cat. M. i), philosophy, which if any o?te obeys, 
he will be able to spend his whole life without vexation. 

virtutem qui adeptus erit ubicunque erit gentium a nobis dili- 
getur (N. D. i. 44), if any 07ie shall have attai7ied virtue, <S:c. 

[For Implied Conditions, see § 60.] 

Note. — The Indefinite Relative, whoever, whatever, whenever, may be 
regarded as a conditional expression, equivalent to (f any one, if at any 
time, &c., as is seen in the analogy of the Greek bg av, brav, and in the 
structure of relative as compared with conditional clauses. In the 
Statutes of Massachusetts, for instance, the phrase '* Whoever shall" 
has been substituted for the old form " If any person shall," &c. 

b. The Apodosis, being the main clause, depends in form on 
the grammatical structure of the sentence, which may require a 
Participle, Infinitive, or Phrase : as, 

quod si prseterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum soli decima 

legione iturum (B. G. i. 40), b?it zfno one else would follow, 

he would go with the tenth legiofi alone. 
si quos adversum proelium commoveret, hos reperire posse (id.), 

if the loss of a battle alarmed any., they might fi7id. 
sepultura quoque prohibituri, ni rex humari jussisset (Q^ C. 

viii. 2), intending also to deprive him of burial, unless the 

king had ordered him to be interred. 



59: 2.] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 167 

2. Particular and General Conditions. The sup- 
position contained in a Protasis may be either particular or 
general, 

a. A Particular supposition refers to a definite act (or a definite 

series of acts) occurring at some definite time : as, 

si hsec condicio consulatus data est . . . feram libenter (Cat. 
iv. i), //" //lis conditio7i has beeit imposed on the cofisulski'p, 
I will bear it 'willingly. 

b. A General supposition refers to any one of a class of acts, 

which may occur (or may have occurred) at any time : as, 

si vero habet aliquod tamquam pabulum studi atque doctringe, 
nihil est otiosa senectute jucundius (Cat. M. 14), indeed, if 
it have some sustenaiice {as it zvere) of study and learning, 
nothing is more cheerful thati a?i old age of leisure. • 

Note. — These two classes of conditions are distinguished logically ; 
and in most languages are also distinguished grammatically, — but only 
as to Present and Past Conditions. In Latin, in particular conditions, 
present or past tenses of the Indicative are regularly used in Prota- 
sis, where no opinion is intimated of its truth or falsity; and the 
Apodosis may take any form of the verb which can be used in an in- 
dependent sentence. In general conditions, also, referring to Present or 
Past time, the Indicative is for the most part used both in Protasis 
and Apodosis. (Compare Goodwin's Greek Grammar, § 220.) 

c. Classification. The principal forms of Conditional Sen- 
tences may be exhibited as follows : — 

1. Present or Past Conditions. 
(a) Simple statement ( ^^ .^^est bene est, if he is [now] here, 
( \\' o" ' r 1 < ^ ^^ well. 

irto'fu&lment) : / ^^ ^^^If (ff ""> ^^"^ f ^*' ^ ^^ 

' \ wa^ |_thenj hei^e, it was ivelL 

(h) Supposition con- ( ^^ f<^esset bene esset if he were [now] 
trarvtofactCcondi- \ ^^^' it loould be ivell. 
tion not fulfilled) • " f ®^ adfuisset bene fuisset, if he had 
\ [then] been here . it would have been well. 

2. Future Conditions. 

(a) More vivid (prob- ( si aderit bene erit, if he is [shall be] 

able) : ( here, it will be well. 

(b) Less vivid (improb- ( si adsit bene sit, if he shoidd [hereafter] 

able) : \ be here, it woidd be well. 

3. General Suppositions. 

(a) Indefimte subject: | ^^^°°^^i^^^^"^ ^^*' '-^ ""'''"■" ^''^' 

(b) Repeated Action :i^%^°° ^""f^f ^^«f, .^"^f (™'-<^)' if 



168 SYNTAX OP THE VERB. [59: 3. 

3. Present and Past Conditions^ A present or past 
condition may be simply stated, implying nothing as to its 
fulfilment ; or it may be stated so as to imply that it is not or 
was not fulfilled. 

a. In the statement of a condition whose falsity is not implied, 
the present and past tenses of the Indicative are used in Protasis ; 
the apodosis expressing simply what is, was, or will he, the result 
of the fulfilment (G. 221) : as, 

si tu exercitusque valetis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), if you and the 

army are ivell, it is well. 
si justitia vacat, in vitio est (Off. i. 19), if justice be wanting, 

it [bravery] is in fault. 
si placet . . . videamus (Cat. M. 5), if you please, let us see. 
fuerit hoc censoris, si judicabat (Div. i. 16), grant that it was 

the censor's duty if he judged^ i&c. 
quicquid jurarunt ventus et unda rapit (Prop. ii. 28), whatever 

they have sworn [i.e. if they have sworn anything], the wiitds 

a7id waves sweep away* 

6. In the statement of a supposition known to he false, the Im- 
perfect and Pluperfect subjunctive are used, — the imperfect 
referring to present time, the pluperfect to past (G. 222) : as, 

quae si exsequi nequirem, tamen me lectulus oblectaret meus 
(Cat. M. 11), if I could not {r\ovi\ follow this [an active life], 
yet my couch would afford me pleasure. 

nisi tu amisisses, nunquam recepissem (id. 4), unless you had 
lost it^ I should not have recovered it. 

si meuni consilium auctoritasque valuisset, tu hodie egeres, 
nos liberi essemus, respublica non tot duces et exercitus 
amisisset (Phil. ii. 15), if my judgment and authority had 
prevailed [as they did not], you would this day be a beggar, 
we should be free^ and the republic would not have lost so 
many leaders and armies. 

Note. — The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not in- 
herent in the Subjunctive ; but comes from the transfer of a future 
condition to past time. Thus the time for the happening of the condi- 
tion has, at the time of writing, already passed; so that, if the con- 
dition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. So forms 
implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in 
apodosis in this construction (see c, below). 

c» In many cases the imperfect refers to past time, both in pro- 
tasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or continued action 
is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist : as, 

hie si mentis esset suse, ausus esset educere exercitum (Pis. 21), 
if he were of sane mind would he have dared to lead out the 
army P 



59: 3] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 169 

non concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostris 
pateret (Verr. ii. i), [the power of Carthage] would not 
have fallen, unless that sialion had been open to our fleets, 

d» The past tenses of the indicative in Apodosis (after a sub- 
junctive in Protasis) may be used to express what ought to have 
been done, or is intended, or is already begun : as, 

si Romae privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen is erat deligendus 

(Manil. 17), ly/te [Pompey] were at this time a private citizen 

in Rome, yet he ought to be appoifited, 
quod esse caput debebat, si probari posset (Fin. iv. 9), what 

ought to be the main point if it could be proved. 
si licitum esset matres veniebant (Verr. vi. 49), the mothers 

were coming if it had been allowed. 
in amplexus filiae ruebat, nisi lictores obstitissent (Ann. xvi. 

2^2), he was about rushing into his daughter's arms, unless the 

lictors had opposed. 

Remark. — In this use, the imperfect indicative corresponds in 
time to the imperfect subjunctive, and the perfect or pluperfect 
indicative to the pluperfect subjunctive (the tenses of the subjunc- 
tive may, however, be used as well ; see Note, above) : as, 
satius erat (esset), // were better. 

e. This use is regular with all verbs and expressions denoting 

the necessity , propriety , desirableness, duty, possibility, of an action 

— including the two periphrastic conjugations (see page 83) — 

where it is implied that what was necessary, &c., has not been done. 

It is sometimes carried still further in poetry : as, 

nam nos decebat lugere (Tusc. i. 47), it would befit us to mourn. 
si non alium jactaret odorem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), it 
were a laurel, but for giving out a different odor. 

Note. — Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of 
Futurity. Compare note under 6. 

e* So the participle in urus with fui is equivalent to 2i plu- 
perfect subjunctive. Hence, when the Apodosis is itself a dependent 
clause, requiring the subjunctive, a pluperfect subjunctive may be 
represented by the Future Participle with the subjunctive of esse 
(compare apodosis In Indirect Discourse, § 67, i, c) : as, 

quid enim futurum fuit [=fuisset], si . . . (Liv. ii. i), what 
would have happened, if, &c. 

neque ambigitur quin ... id facturus fuerit, si . . . (ib.), atid 
no doubt he would have done it, if, dec. 

ex quo intellegi potest quam acuti natura sint, qui hsec 
sine doctrina credituri fuerint (Tusc. i. 21), hence it may be 
understood how keen they are by nature, who, without instruc- 
tion, would have believed this. [Here the condition is con- 
tained in the words sine doctrina.^ 

8 



170 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [59: 4. 

adeo parata seditio fuit, ut Othonem rapturi fuerint, ni incerta 
noctis timuissent (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advaticed was the 
conspiracy^ that they -would have seized upon Otho^ had they 
not feared the hazards of the night [in the direct discourse, 
rafuisse7it ni timuissent \. 

4. Future Conditions* A Future condition may either 
make a distinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis 
expressing what will be the result ; or the supposition may be 
less distinct and vivid, the apodosis expressing what would be 
the result in the case supposed. 

a. If the condition is stated vividly, so as to be conceived as 
actually about to take place, the Future Indicative is used in both 
protasis and apodosis (G. 223) : as, 

sanabimur si volemus (Tusc iii. 6), we shall be healed if we 

wish. • 

quod si legere aut audire voletis . . . reperietis (Cat. M. 6), 

if you will read or hear, you will fi?id. 

h* The Present subjunctive expresses a future condition less 
vividly, or as less probable, than when the future indicative is 
used (G. 224) : as, 

haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat (Cat. 
i. 8), if thy country should tJius speak with thee, ought she not 
to prevail f 
quod si quis deus mihi largiatur . . . valde recusem (Cat. M. 23), 
but if some god were to grant me this, I should ear7iestly 
refuse. 

Remark. — The present subjunctive sometimes stands in prota- 
sis with the future in apodosis. 

€• If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that 
of the apodosis begins, the future perfect is substituted for the 
future, and the perfect subjunctive for the present : as, 

sin, cum potuero, non venero, tum erit inimicus (Att. ix. 2), 
but if I do not come when I can, he will be unfriendly. 

si non feceris, ignoscam (Fam. v. 19), if you do not do it, I ^vill 
excuse you. 

Remark. — This is a very common construction in Latin, owing 
to the tendency of the language to represent an action as com- 
pleted, rather than as in progress. 

d* Any form denoting future time may stand in the apodosis 

of a ftiture condition (so the participles in dus and rus, and verbs 

of necessity, possibility, and the like) : as, 

non possum istum accusare si cupiam (Verr. v. 41), I can?iot 
accuse him if I should desire. 



59: 4? 5-] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 171 

alius finis constituendus est si prius quid maxime reprehendere 
Scipio solitus sit dixero (Lael. i6), a7iother Ihnit must be set if 
I shall first state -what Scipio was most -wont to blame. 

e* Rarely the perfect is used (rhetorically) in apodosis with a 
present or even future in protasis, representing the conclusion as 
already accomplished : as, 

si hoc bene fixum in animo est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), tf this 
is IV ell fixed i7i your mi?ids, you have conqiiered. 

si eundem [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. 43), if you shall 
have kept the same spirit^ ive have conquered, 

/. Frequently the present subjunctive of a future condition 
becomes imperfect by the sequence of tenses or some other cause 
(retaining the same force relatively to past time) : as, 

non poterat nisi vellet (B. C. iii. 44), ivas not able unless he 
ivished. 

Csesar si peteret . . . non quicquam proficeret (Hor. Sat. i. 2), 
if even Ccesar -were to ask he -would gaiii nothing. [Here 
the construction is not contrary to fact, but is simply si 
fetat non proficiat, thrown into past time.] 

tumulus apparuit ... si luce palam iretur hostis prseventurus 
erat (Liv. xxii. 24), a hill appeared . . . if they should go 
openly by light the efiemy ivotcld prevent. [Independent of 
apparuit, this would be, si eatur, prceventurus est, for prcE- 
ve?iiat.^ 

5. General Conditions. General conditions are distin- 
guished in Latin in only two cases : viz., 

a. Indefinite Subject. The subjunctive is used in the second 
person singular, to denote the act of an indefinite subject {you = 
any one) . Here the present Indicative of a general truth may 
stand in the apodosis (G. 225) : as, " 

mens prope uti ferrum est: si exerceas conteritur; nisi exer- 
ceas, rubiginem contrahit (Cato de Mor.), the mind is very 
like iron : if you use it, it -wears away ; if you doji't use it, it 
gathers rust. 

virtutem necessario gloria, etiamsi tu id non agas, consequitur 
(Tusc. i. 38), glory ?tecessarily follovjs virtue, even if that is 
not one's aim. 

si prohibita impune transcenderis, neqiie metus ultra neque 
pudor est (Ann. iii. 54), if you once overstep the bounds -with 
impunity, there is no fear nor shame any more. 

si cederes placabilis (Tac. Ann.), \_he -was] easily appeased if 
07ie yielded. 

b* Repeated Action. In later writers (not in Cicero), the 
imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are used in protasis, with the 



172 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [60: I. 

imperfect indicative in apodosis, to state a repeated or customary 
action: as, 

accusatores, si facultas incideret, poenis adficiebantur (Ann. 

vi. 30), the accusers^ 'whenever opportunity offered^ ivere 

visited with pu?iish?nent» 
quemcunque lictor prehendisset, tribunus mitti jubebat (Liv. 

iii. 11), Tvhomever the lictor had seized, the tribune ordered 

to be let go. 

€• In all other cases, General Suppositions — including those 
introduced by Indefinite Relatives — take the indicative, 

60. Implied Conditions. 

In many sentences properly conditional, the sub- 
ordinate member is not expressed as a conditional 
clause ; but is stated in some other form of words, or 
is implied in the nature of the thought. 

1. Condition Disguised, The condition is often con- 
tained in some other form of words than a regular Protasis, 
in the same clause or sentence. 

a. The condition maybe contained in a relative, participial, or 
other qualifying clause : as, 

facile me paterer — velipsoquaerente, vel apudCassianos judices 

— pro Sex. Roscio dicere (Rose. Am. 30), / would readily 

allow myself to speak for Roscius, if he^ d:c, 
non mihi, nisi admonito, venisset in mentem (De Or. ii. 42), 

// would not have come into my mind, unless [I had been] 

admonished [== nisi admonitus essem]. 
nulla alia gens tanta mole cladis non obruta esset (Liv. xxii. 

54), there is no other people that would tiot have been crushed 

by such a weight of disaster [i.e. IF it had been any other 

people], 
nemo unquam, sine magna spe immortalitatis, se pro patria 

offerret ad mortem (Tusc. i. 15), no one, without great hope 

of inifnortality, would ever expose himself to death for his 

country, 
quid hunc paucorum annorum accessio juvare potuisset (Lael. 

3), zvhat good could the addition of a few years have done 

hitn P [if he had had them.] 

6» The condition may be contained in a wish, or expressed as 

a command, by the imperative or hortatory subjunctive : as, 

utinam quidem fuissem! molestus nobis non esset (Fam. xii. 
3), I wish I had bee?i [chief] : he would not ?iow be troubling 
us [i.e. if I had been]. 



60: 1,2.] IMPLIED CONDITIONS. 173 

roges enim Aristonem, neget (Fin. iv. 2^), for ask Aristo, and 

he -would deny- 
tolle hanc opinionem, luctum sustuleris (Tusc. i. 13), remove 

this notioji, and you will have do7ie away grief. 
naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret (Hor. Ep. i. 10), 

drive out nature with a pitchfork^ still she will ever return, 
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria 

(Cat. M. 7), old men keep their metttal powers, only let them 

keep their zeal and diligence^ 
Note. — This usage is probably the origin of the use of the sub- 
junctive in Protasis; the subjunctive being used first, as in § 57, 3, 
while the conditional particle is a form of an indefinite pronoun. 

c. Rarely, the condition is stated in an independent clause : as, 

rides: majore cachinno concutitur (Juv. iii. \qo)^ you laugh: 

he shakes zvith louder laughter. 
de paupertate agitur : multi patientes pauperes commemor- 

antur (Tusc. iii. 24), we speak of poverty : many patient poor 

are metitioned, 

2. Condition Omitted* The condition is often wholly 

omitted, but may be inferred from the course of the argument. 

Remark. — Under this head belong all the apparently inde- 
pendent uses of the subjunctive not mentioned in § 57, 2. In this 
use the perfect subjunctive is especially common, in the same sense 
as the present, referring to the immediate future ; the imperfect to 
past time (not to present, as in § 57, 3). 

a» Potential Subjunctive. The present and perfect sub- 
junctive (often with forsitan or the like) are used to denote an 
action as possible; also, the second person singular of all the 
tenses, denoting an indefinite subject : as, 

hie quaerat quispiam (N. D. ii. 53), here some one may ask. 
ut aliquis fortasse dixerit (Off. iii. 6), as one may perhaps say, 
forsitan haec illi mirentur j(Verr. v. 56), they 7nay percha7ice 

marvel at these things. 
turn in lecto quoque videres susurros (Hor. Sat. ii. 8), thefi 07i 

each couch you might see whisperings, 

b* The subjunctive is used in cautious, modest, or hypothetical 
statement (conjunctivus modestice) : as, 

pace tua dixerim (Mil. 38), I would say by your leave. 

baud sciam an (De Or. i. 60), 1 should i7icli?ie to think. 

tu velim sic existimes (Fam. xii. 6), I would like you to think so, 

vellem adesset M. Antonius (Phil. i. 7), I wish A7itho7iy were 
here [here vellem implies an impossible w^ish in present 
time]. 

haec erant fere quse tibi nota esse vellem (Fam. xii. 5), this is 
about what I want you to know [here velle7n is simply veli77i 
transferred to past time on account of erat, by connection 
of tenses, and does not imply an impossible wish]. 



174 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [60:2. 61. 

c. The Indicative of verbs signifying necessity, propriety, and 
the like, may be used In the apodosis of implied conditions, either 
future or contrary to fact : as, 

longum est [sit] ea dicere, sed ... (in Pison. lo), it would he 

tedious to tell, <&c. 
illud erat aptius, aequum cuique concedere (Fin. iv. i), it would 

be more fitting to yield each one his rights. 
ipsum enim exspectare magnum fuit (Phil. ii. 40), would it 

have been a great matter to wait for himself f 
quanto melius fuerat (Off. iii. 25), how 7nuch better it would 

have been. 
quod contra decuit ab illo meum [corpus cremari] (Cat. M.), 

whereas on the other hand mine ought to have been bur?it by 

him. 
nam nos decebat domum lugere ubi esset aliquis in lucem editus 

(Tusc. i. ^^^, for it were fitti7ig to mourn the house where a 

man has bee7i born [but we do not], 
nunc est bibendum . . . nunc Saliaribus ornare pulvinar deorum 

tempus erat dapibus sodales (Hor. Od. i. 37), i.e. it would be 

time [if it were for us to do it, but it is a public act]. 

Remark. — Notice that, in this construction, the imperfect in- 
dicative refers to present time ; the pluperfect to simply past time, 
like the perfect. Thus oportebat means it ought to be [now] , but 
is not ; oportuerat means it ought to have been, but was not. 

d* The omission of the protasis often gives rise to mixed con- 
structions : as, 

peream male si non optimum erat (Hor. Cat. ii. i), may I 
perish if it would not be better. [Here the protasis and 
apodosis come under § 59, 3, d. Optimum erat is itself an 
apodosis with the protasis omitted.] 

quod si in hoc mundo fieri sine deo non potest, ne in sphaera 
quidem eosdem motus Archimedes sine divino ingenio potu- 
isset imitari (Tusc. i. 25). [Here the protasis oi potuisset is 
in sine divino ingenio.^ 



61. Conditional Particles. 

Certain Particles implying a Condition are fol- 
lowed by the Subjunctive, but upon several different 
principles. 

1. Com2)arative Particles, The particles of compari- 
5071 — tamquam, quasi, quam si, acsi, utsi, velutsi, 
Veluti, and poetic ceu — introduce conditional clauses, of 



61: 1,2,3-] CONDITIONAL PARTICLES. 175 

which the conclusion is omitted or implied; and takq, the 
subjunctive. 

Remark. — Contrary to the English idiom, the present and 
perfect subjunctive are regularly used with these particles, except 
where the connection of tenses requires secondary tenses : as, 

tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia was closed. 

tamquam si claudus sim (Plaut. Asin. 2), fust as if I were lame. 

quasi vero non specie visa judicentur (Acad. ii. 18), as if for- 
sooth visible things were not judged by their appearance. 

velut si coram adesset (B. G. i. 32), as if he were there presetit. 

similiter facis ac si me roges (N. S. iii. 3), you do exactly as if 
you asked me, 

seque ac si mea negotia essent (Fam. xiii. 43), as much as if it 
were 7ny own business. 

ceu cetera nusquam bella forent (^n. ii. 438), as if there were 
no fghti Jig elsewhere. 

magrs quam si domi esses (Att. vi. 4), more than if you were 
at home. 

ac si ampuUam perdidisset (Fin. iv. 12), as if he had lost the 
bottle. 

2. Concessive 1^ articles. The particles of concession 
— although, granting that — sometimes take the subjunctive, 
but under various constructions : viz., 

Quam vis and ut (except in later writers) take the hortatory 
subjunctive (§ 57, 2) ; licet is a verb, and is followed by an 
object-clause (§ 70, 3); etsi has the same constructions as si 
(§ 59) ; cum has a special construction (§ 62, i) ; quanquam 
takes the indicative (59, 3, a) : as, 

quamvis ipsi infantes sint, tamen . . . (Or. 23), however incap- 
able themselves of speakings yet, &c. 

ut neminem ali alium rogasset (Mil. 17), even if I had asked 
no other. 

licet omnes in me terrores periculaque impendeant (Rose. Am. 
11), though all terrors and perils should menace me. 

etsi abest maturitas (Fam. vi. 18), though ripeness of age is 
wanting. 

etsi nihil aliud abstulissetis (Sull. 32), even if you had taken 
away tiothing else. 

3. A Proviso, introduced by modo, dum, dummodo, re- 
quires the Subjunctive: as, 

valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 16), provided the health is good. 
modo n.e sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 30), provided it [plea- 
sure] be not after the manner of cattle. 



176 SYNTAX OP THE VERB. [61: 4. 62. 

oderint dum metuant (Off. i. 28), let them hate^ ifo7ily they fear. 
dum de patris morte qua^reretur (Rose. Am. 41), let the inquiry 

only be of a father' s death. 
dummodo inter me atque te murus intersit (Cat. i. 5), provided 

only the city -wall is between us* 

Note. — The Subjunctive with modo is a hortatory Subjunctive ; 
with dum and dummodo, a development from the Subjunctive in 
temporal clauses. 

4. The use of some of the more common Conditional 
Particles may be stated as follows: — 

a. Si is used for affirmativey nisi and si non for negative con- 
ditidtis. With nisi, the negative belongs rather to the Apodosis, 
— i.e. the conclusion is true except in the case supposed ; with 
si non, the Protasis is negative, — i.e. the conclusion is limiled to 
the case supposed. (The difference is often only one of emphasis.) 
Nisi is never used if the clause has a concessive force. Ni is an 
old form, reappearing in poets and later writers, and in a few con- 
ventional phrases. Sometimes nisi si occurs. 

6. Nisi vero and nisi forte — sometimes nisi alone — regu- 
larly introduce an objection y or exceptiony ironically, and take the 
Indicative. 

€• Sive . . . sive (sen) introduce conditions in the form of an 
alternative. They have no peculiar construction, but may be used 
with any kind of condition, or with different kinds in the two 
branches, often also without a verb. 

d» Of the concessive particles, the compounds of si are used 
in all the forms of protasis ; quanquam regularly introduces only 
conceded fads, and hence takes the Indicative ; quamvis, quan- 
tum vis, quamlibet, ut, cum, and libet, take idiomatic construc- 
tions corresponding to their original meaning. Later writers, 
however, frequently use all these particles like the compounds of 
si, connecting them with the Indicative or Subjunctive according 
to the nature of the condition. Even Cicero occasionally uses 
quanquam with the Subjunctive. 



62. Relations of Time. 

Temporal clauses are introduced by particles which 
are almost all of relative origin ; and are construed 
like other relative clauses, except where they have 
developed into special constructions. 



62: I, 2.] RELATIONS OF TIME. 177 

Temporal Particles are the following : — ubi, ut (ut primum, 
ut semel), simul atque (simul ac or simul alone), cum 
(quom), antequam, priusquam, postquam (posteaquam) , 
dum, donee, quoad, quamdiu, quando. 

1. The particles ubi, ut, cum, quando, either alone 
or compounded with -cunque, are used as indejinite rela- 
tives, and have the constructions of Protasis (§ 59) : as, 

cum rosam viderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. lo), 
iv/ie?iever he had see7i a rose, he thought Spring was begun 
[general condition]. 

cum id malum esse negas (Tusc. ii. 12), -when you [the indi- 
vidual disputant] deny it to be an evil. 

cum videas eos . . . dolore non frangi (id. 27), when you see 
[indefinite subject] that those are not broketi by pain, drc. 

quod profecto cum me nulla vis cogeret, facere non auderem 
* (Phil. V. 18), which I would surely not ve?zture to do^ as lofig 
as no force compelled me [supposition contrary to fact]. 

id ubi dixisset, hastam in fines eorum emittebat (Liv. i. 32), 
when he had said this^ he [used to] cast the spear into their 
territories [repeated action]. 

Remark. — So est cum, fuit cum, &c., are used in general 
expressions like est qui, sunt qui (§ 65). 

2, Temporal clauses of absolute time take the Indicative ; 
those of relative time, the Subjunctive. 

(For the definition of absolute and relative time, see § 58, i, 9.) 

Note. — This distinction is not made in other languages, but it 
may be made clear in the two following expressions : 1. When was 
the great fire in London ? Ans. When Charles II. was king (absolute 
time). 2. When Charles II. was king (relative time), a great fire broke 
oat in London. In the first case the reign of Charles is referred to as 
diX). absolute fixed date, 'known to the hearer; while in the second the 
time is not so fixed, but is given as relative to the event narrated by the 
main verb, which alone denotes absolute time. In this construction, the 
Subjunctive describes the time by its characteristics (as in § 65, 2), and 
thus is a branch of the Subjunctive of result. Hence this qualitative 
character of the temporal clause often reappears and occasions the 
Subjunctive, where the idea of relative time would not naturally be 
expected : as, turn, cum haberet hcec respublica Luscinos, &c. . , . et tum, 
cum ERANT Catones, &c. Here the former clause describes the char- 
acter of the age by its men (at a time when there were such men) ; in 
the latter, the individual men are present to the mind (at the time of 
the Catos, &c.). 

a. The particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, ut (ut 
primum, ut semel), simul atque (simul ac or simul alone), 
introduce clauses of absolute time, and take the Indicative (usually 
the narrative tenses, the perfect and the historical present) : as, 

8* 



178 * SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [62: 2. 

milites postquam victoriam adepti sunt, nihil reliqui victis 
fecere (Sail. Cat. ii), when the armies had 'won the victory^ 
they left 7iothing to the vanquished* 

Pompeius ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit (B. C 
iii. 94), zvheii Pompey saw his cavalry beaten^ he left the army, 

Remaj^k. — !• Those particles may also take the imperfect, 
denoting a continued state of things, and the 'pluperfect, denoting 
the result of an action completed, in the Indicative : as, 

postquam instructi utrimque stabant, duces in medium pro- 

cedunt (Liv. i. 23), zvhe7i they stood ifi array on both sides, 

the gener'als adva?ice into the midst. 
P. Africanus posteaquam bis consul et censor fuerat (Div. in 

Csec. 21), when Africanus had been [i.e. had the dignity of 

having been] twice co7isul and censor, 
postquam id difficilius visum est, neque facultas perficiendi 

dabatur, ad Pompeium transierunt (B. C. iii. 60), whe^i this 

seemed too hard, and 7io means of effectiiig it were given, they 

passed over to Pompey. 
post diem quintum quam barbari iterum male pugnaverant 

(= victi sunt), legati a Boccho veniunt (Jug. 110), the fifth 
, day after the barbaria?is were beaten the seco?id time, envoys 

came from Bocchus. 

2. Rarely these particles denote relative time, and take the 
Subjunctive : as, 

posteaquam maximas sedificasset ornassetque classes (Manil. 
4). having built and equipped ^nighty fleets. 

h» Cum (quom), temporal, meaning wlien, introduces both 
absolute and relative time, and takes either mood, — the Indica- 
tive of the present and perfect, the Subjunctive of the imperfect 
and pluperfect : as, 

cum occiditur Sex. Roscius, ibidem fuerunt servi (Rose Am. 

61), whe7i Roscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot. 
nempe eo [lituo] regiones direxit tum cum urbem condidit 

(Div. i. 17), he traced with it the quarters [of the sky] at the 

time he founded the city. 
cum servili bello premeretur (Manil. 11), when she [Italy] was 

U7ider the load of the Servile war. 
inde cum se in Italiam recepisset (id. 12), when he had retur7ied 

the7ice to Italy. 
cum incendisses cupiditatem meam , . . tum discedis a nobis 

(Fam. XV. 21), while you had i7ifla7ned my eager7zess, yet you 

withdrew fr 0711 us. 

Note. — The Present takes the Indicative because present time is 
generally, from its very nature, defined in the mind ; and it is only 
when the circumstances are described as causal or adversative (see 
below, § 65, 2, e) that the Subjunctive is used. The Perfect takes 
the Indicative as the tense of narrative, as with postquam, &c. The 
Imperfect and Pluperfect are, from their nature, fitter to denote rela- 
tive time. 



62: 2.] RELATIONS OF TIME. 179 

Remark. — !• But the imperfect and pluperfect may denote 
absolute time, and then are in the Indicative : as, 

res cum haec scribebam erat in extremum adducta discrimen 
(Fam. xii. 6), at the tune I write [epistolary] the affair was 
brought into great hazard. 

quern quidem cum ex urbe pellebam, hoc providebam animo 
(Cat. ill. 7), when I was about for ci?ig him [conative im- 
perfect] from the city, I looked forward to this, 

fulgentes gladios hostium videbant Decii cum in aciem eorum 
irruebant (Tusc. ii. 24), the Decii saw the flashing swords of 
the enemy wheti they rushed upo7t their line. 

tum cum in Asia res magnas permulti amiserant (Manil. 7), 
at that time, when m>any had lost great fortunes in Asia. 

2. When the clauses are inverted, so that the real temporal 
clause becomes the main clause, and mce versa, the Indicative 
must be used : as, 

dies nondum decem intercesserant, cum ille alter filius infans 
necatur (Clu. 9), tefi days had not yet passed, when the other 
infant son was killed. 

hoc facere noctu apparabant, cum matres familise repente in 
publicum procurrerunt (B. G. vii. 26), they were preparing 
to do this by night, when the women suddenly ran out into the 
streets. 

3. With Future tens'es, there is no distinction of absolute or 
relative time ; and hence the Indicative is used : as, 

non dubitabo dare operam ut te videam, cum id satis commode 
facere potero (Fam. xiii. i), I shall not hesitate to take pai7is 
to see you, wheti I can do it C07iveniently. 

longum illud tempus cum non ero (Att. xii. 18), that long time 
when I shall be no more. 

In the other tenses, the distinction is of late origin : hence in 
Plautus quom always takes the Indicative except where the Sub- 
junctive is used for other reasons. 

c. In narration antequam and priusquam — also, in late writ- 
ers, dum and donee — have the same construction as cum: as, 

antequam tuas legi litteras (Att. ii. 7), before I read your letter. 
nee ante finis fuit quam concessere (Liv. viii. 13), there was no 

end until they yielded [regular with non ante quam, &c.]. 
antequam homines nefarii de meo adventu audire potuissent, 

in Macedoniam perrexi (Plane. 41), before those evil men 

could lear?i of my coming, I arrived in Macedonia, 
nee obstitit falsis donee tempore ac spatio vanescerent (Tac. 

Ann. ii. 82), nor did he contradict the falsehoods till they died 

out through lapse of time. 

Remark. — In reference to future time, these particles take the 
present and future perfect indicative ; rarely the future indica- 
tive and present subjunctive : as, 



180 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [62: 2. 

prius quam de ceteris rebus respondeo, de amicitia pauca 

dicam (Phil. ii. i), before I reply to the rest, I ivill say a 

little offriendshij). 
non defatigabor ante quam illorum ancipites vias percepero 

(De Or. iii. 36), I shall 7iot iveary till I have traced out their 

doubtful Tvays. 

In a few cases the subjunctive of protasis seems to be used : as, 

"... 
priusquam incipias consulto et ubi consulueris mature facto 

opus est (Sail. Cat. i), before begi7ining you need reflection^ 

and after reflecti?ig, prompt action. 

tempestas minatur antequam surgat (Sen. Ep. 103), the storm 

threatens before it rises, [Compare § 59, 5, aJ\ 

d» Dum, donee, and quoad, implying purpose, take the sub- 
junctive (§ 64) ; otherwise, except in later writers, the indica- 
tive. Dum and duxumodo, provided, take the subjunctive : as, 

dum h2ec geruntur (B. G. i. 46), -while this -was going- on. 

donee rediit silentium fuit (Liv. xxiii. 31), there was silence 
until he returned. 

dum res maneant, verba fingant (Fin. v. 29), so long as the facts 
remain, let them fashion words. 

hoc feci dum licuit, intermisi quoad non licuit (Phil. iii. 13), 
/ did this so long as it was allowed, I discontinued so long as 
it was not. 

dummodo sit polita, dum urbana, dum elegans (Brut. 82), pro- 
vided it be polished, refined, elegant. 

Remark. — With all temporal particles, the Subjunctive is often 
found, depending on other principles of construction. 

€• Cum — CAUSAL, meaning since, while, or although — takes 
the subjunctive (often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, prae- 
sertim) : as, 

cum solitudo . . . insidiarum et metus plena sit (Fin. i. 20), 

since solitude is full of treachery aiid fear. 
cum primi ordines . . . concidissent, tamen acerrime reliqui 

resistebant (B. G. vii. 62), though the first ranks had fallen, 

still the others resisted vigorously- 
nee reprehendo : quippe cum ipse istam reprehensionein non 

fugerim (Att. x. 3), I do not blame it: since I myself did not 

escape that blame. 

But frequently in the sense of quod, on the ground that, it takes 
the Indicative : as, 

gratulor tibi cum tantum vales apud Dolabellam (Fam. xi 14), 
I congratulate you that you are so strong with Dolabella. 

Note. — This causal relation is merely a variation of the idea of 
time, where the attendant circumstances are regarded as the cause. 



63: I, 2.] CAUSE OR REASON. 181 

/. Cum . . . turn, signifying both . . . and, usually take the 
Indicative ; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though, 
it may have the Subjunctive : as, 

cum multa non probo, turn illud in primis (Fin. i. 6), while 
there are many things I do not approve^ there is this in chief. 

cum res tota ficta sit pueriliter, tum ne efficit quidem quod vult ^ 
(ib.), while the whole thing- is childishly got up, he does not 
even fnake his point. 



63. Cause or Reason. 

Causal clauses may take the Indicative or Subjunc- 
tive according to their construction ; the idea of Cause 
being contained not in the mood itself^ but in the form 
of the argument, or the connecting particles. 

1. The Causal Particles quod, quia, quoniam, quando 
' — and in early Latin cum {causal) — take the Indicative: as, 

quia postrema aedificata est (Verr. iv. 53), because it was built 

last. 
utinam ilium diem videam, cum tibi agam gratias quod me 

vivere coegisti (Att. iii. 3), O that I may see the day when I 

may thafik you that you have forced me to live. 
quoniam de utilitate jam diximus, de efficiendi ratione dicamus 

(Or. Part. 26), sitice we have now spoken of [its] advantage^ 

let us speak of the method of effecting it. 
quando ita vis di bene vortant (Trin. s'j;^), since you so wish, 

may the gods bless the undertaking. 
quom tua res distrahitur utinam te redisse salvam videam 

(id. 617), since your property is torn in pieces, oh, that I 

may see you returned safely ! 

2. Clauses introduced by these particles, like any other 
dependent clause, take the Subjunctive of Indirect Discourse 
(see § 67, i). 

a. A relative clause of characteristic, with its verb, in the sub- 
iunctive, may have the force of a causal sentence (see § 65, 2). 

6. The particle cum, when used in a causal sense, idiomatically 
takes the Subjunctive (§ 62, 2, e). 



182 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [64: I. 



64. Purpose. 

1. Final Clauses, or those expressing purpose^ take the 
Subjunctive after relatives (qui = ut is), or the conjunction 
ut (uti), in order that (negatively ut ne or ne, lest) : as, 

ab aratro abduxenmt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Fin. ii. 

4), f/iey brought Cmcinnatus from the plough, that he might 

be dictator. 
scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent (Brut. 56), he wrote 

speeches for other vien to deliver. 
huic ne ubi consisteret quidem contra te locum reliquisti 

(Quinct. 22), you have left him no ground even to make a 

stand against you. 
nihil habeo quod scribam, I have nothi?ig to write. 
habebam quo confugerem (Fam. iv. 6), / had [a retreat] 

whither I might flee. 
ut ne sit impune (Mil. 12), that it be not with imfmiity. 
ne qua ejus adventias procul significatio fiat (B. G. vi. 29), that 

no sig7i of his arrival may be made at a distance. 

Rkmark. — Sometimes the relative or conjunction has a correl- 
ative in the main clause : as, 

legum ideirco omnes servi sumus, ut liberi esse possimus 
(Clu. 53), for this reasojz we are subject to the laws^ that we 
may be free. 

ea causa . . . ne, for this reason:, lest, &c. 

Note. — As ut (uti) is of relative origin, the construction with ut 
is the same as that of relatives. That w^ith ne is perhaps, in origin, 
a hortatory subjunctive. 

a* The ablative quo (= ut eo) is used as a conjunction in final 
clauses, especially with comparatives ; as, 

libertate usus est, quo impunius dicax esset (Quinct. 3), he 
availed himself of liberty, that he might bluster with more 
impufiity. 

Compare quominus (=ut eo minus), after verbs of hinder- 
ing (§ 65, I, a). 

&• The Principal clause, upon which a final clause depends, is 
often to be supplied from the context : as, 

ac ne longum sit . . . jussimus (Cat. iii. 5), a?id, not to be 
tedious, we ordered, &c. [strictly, ** not to be tedious, I say."] 

sed ut ad Dionjsium redeamus, . . . (Tusc. v. 22), but to return 
to Dionysius, &c. 

satis inconsiderati fuit, ne dicam audacis (Phil. xiii. 5), // was 
the act of one rash enough, not to say daring. 



64; 2. 65.] CONSEQUENCE OR RESULT. 183 

Remark. — To this principle belongs nedum, still less, not to 
mention that, with which the verb itself is often omitted : as, 

nedum . . . salvi esse possimus (Clu. ^^^j 7nicck less could zve 

be safe. 
nedum isti . . . non statim conquisituri sint aliquid sceleris et 

flagitii (Leg. Ag. ii. 35), far more will they hunt up at once 

some sort of crime a7id scandal. 
nedum in mari et via sit facile (Fam. xvi. 8), still less is it easy 

at sea, and on ajourtiey. 

c* Final clauses easily become the object of verbs of wishing, 
commanding, &c. (see § 68). 

2. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in 
various ways ; but never (except rarely in poetry) by the 
simple Infinitive, as in English. The sentence, they came to 
seek peace, may be rendered — 

(i) venerunt ut pacem peterent . . . [final clause with ut] ; 

(2) ,, qui pacem peterent [final clause with Relative] ; 

(3) ,, ad petendum pacem (rare) [gerund with ad]; 

(4) ,, ad petendam pacem [gerundive with ad] ; 

(5) ,, pacem petendi causa* [gerund with causa] ; 

(6) ,, pacis petendae causa [gerundive with causa] ; 

(7) ,, pacem petituri [future participle (not in Cicero)] ; 

(8) ,, pacem petitum [former supine]. 

* Or gratia. 



65o Consequence or Result. 

1. Consecutive Clauses, or those expressing result, 
take the Subjunctive after relatives or the conjunction ut, so 
that (negatively, ut non) : as, 

nemo est tarn senex, qui se annum non putet posse vivere (Cat. 

M. 7), no one is so old as not to think he ca?i live a year, 
nam est innocentia affectio talis animi, quae noceat nemini 

(TusCo iii. 8), for innocence is such a quality of mind as to do 

harm to no one, 
sunt alige causae quae plane efficiant (Top. 15), there are other 

causes, such as to bring to pass. 

Remark. — A negative result js expressed by ut non. Some- 
times, when the result is regarded as intended (though not a pur- 
pose), ut ne or ne is used : as, 

[librum] ita corrigas ne mihi noceat (Fam. vi. 7), correct the 
book so that it may not hurt me. 



184 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [65: 1,2. 

hoc est ita utile ut ne plane illudamur ab accusatoribus (Rose. 
Am. 2o), this is so usejul^ that ive are not utterly mocked by 
the accusers [/.g., only on this condition]. 

u* The subjunctive with quominus (= ut eo minus) may be 

used, to express a result, after verbs of hindering : as, 

nee aetas impedit quominus agri colendi studia teneamus (Cat. 
M. 17), nor does age prevent us from retaining a7i i7iterest in 
tilling the ground* 

h» A clause of result is introduced by quin after general 
negatives, where quin is equivalent to qui (quae, quod) non; 
also after clauses denoting hindrance, resistance, doubt, and sus- 
pension of effort (when these clauses are also negative) : as, 

non dubitoquin, I do not doubt that [dubito an, I doubt whether^, 
segre (vix) abstinui quin, I hardly refrai?ied from, tire, 
nihil impedit quin . . ., there is nothing to prevent, iS:c. 
abesse non potest quin (Or. 70), // catmot be but that. 
nihil est illorum quin [==quod non] ego illi dixerim (Plant. 
Bac. iii.^), there is nothing of this that I have not told him, 

Kemark. — The above clauses of result easily pass into Substan- 
tive Clauses, for which see § 70. 

2. A relative clause of Result is often used to indicate a 
characteristic of the antecedent, even where the idea of result 
can be no longer perceived. This is especially common 
where the antecedent is otherwise undefined: as, 

neque enim tu is es, qui qui sis nescias (Fam. v. 12), for you 

are not such a one, as 7iot to know ivko you are. 
multa dicunt quae vix intelligant (Fin. iv. i), they say many 

things such as they hardly ufiderstand. 
paci quae nihil habitura sit insidiarum semper est consulen- 

dum (Off. i. 11), we must always aim at a -peace which shall 

have no plots. 
unde agger comportari posset, nihil erat reliquum (B. C. ii. 

15), there was nothing left, from which an embankme?it could 

be put together. 

Note. — These cases of result are to be distinguished from the In- 
definite Relative in protasis (§ 59, i). 

Such relative clauses of characteristic are used in several 
idiomatic constructions : viz., — 

a* After general expressions of existence and non-existence, 
including questions implying a negative : as, 

erant qui Helvidium miserarentur (Ann. xvi. 29), there were 
so7ne who pitied Helvidius. 



65: 2. 66.] INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. 185 

quis est qui id non maximis efferat laudibus (Lsel. 7), -who is 
there that does not extol it ivith the highest praises ? 

sunt aliae causae quae plane efficiant (Top. 15), there are other 
causes -which clearly effect, d:c. 

b* After unus and solus: as, 

nil admirari prope res est una solaque quae possit facere et 
servare beatum (Hor. Ep. i.6), to -wonder at nothing is almost 
the sole and only thing that can make and keep one happy, 

c. After comparatives followed by quam : as, 

majores arbores caedebant quam quas ferre miles posset (Liv. 

xxviii. 5), they cut larger trees than ivhat a soldier could 

carry. 
Canachi signa rigidiora sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem 

(Brut. 18), the statues of Canachus are too stiff to represe?it 

nature. 

d. In expressions of restriction or proviso, introduced by 

Relatives : as, 

quod sciam, so far as I know. 

Catonis orationes, quas quidem invenerim (Brut. 17), the 

speeches of Cato^ at least such as I have discovered. 
servus est nemo, qui modo tolerabili condicione sit servitutis 

(Cat. iv. 8), there is not a slave, at least in any tolerable con- 

dition of slavery. 

€• When the quality indicated is connected with the action of 
the main clause, either as Cause on account of which (since) , or as 
Hindrance in spite of which (although)-, as, 

O virum simplicem qui nos nihil celet (Or. 69), oh, guileless 
man, who hides nothing from us ! 

egomet qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem tamen complures 
Athenis dies sum commoratus (De Or. 18), I myself though 
I began Greek literature late, yet, drc. [lit., a man who"]. 

/. Dignus, indignus, aptus, idoneus, take a clause of result 

with a relative (rarely with ut) ; in the poets the Infinitive : as, 

idoneus qui impetret (Manil. ig),fft to obtain. 

dignum notari (Hor. Sat. i. 3), worthy to be stigmatized* 

66. Intermediate Clauses. 

A Relative or other subordinate clause takes the 
Subjunctive, when it expresses the thought of %ome 
other person than the speaker or writer, or when it is 
an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equivalent 
Infinitive. 



186 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [66: I, 2. 

1. The Subjunctive is used in intermediate clauses to 
express the thought of some other person — 

a. In subordinate clauses in Indirect Discourse (see § 67) . 
&• When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, 
a command, or a question expressed indirectly, though not indirect 
discourse proper : . as, 

animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Off. i. 6), an animal feels 

'what it is that is fit. 
hunc sibi ex animo scrupulum, qui se dies rioctesque stimulet 
ac pungat, ut evellatis postulat (Rose. Am. 2), he begs you to 
pluck from his heart this doubt that goads and stings him day 
a7id night. [Here the relative clause is not a part of the 
Purpose expressed in evellatis, but is an assertion made by 
the subject oi ;postulat.~\ 

c* When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb 
of saying, or some modifier of it : as, 

nisi restituissent statuas, vehementer iis minatur (Verr. iii.67), 
he threatens them violently unless they should restore the statues. 
[Here the main clause, ''that he will inflict punishment," is 
contained in minatur.'] 
prohibitio toUendi, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibebat pactioni 
(id. iv. 14), the forbidding to take away unless he came to 
terfns gave force to the bargain. 

d* With a reason or an explanatory fact introduced by a rela- 
tive or by quod (rarely quia) : as, 

Favonius mihi quod defendissem leviter succensuit (Att. iii. i), 

Favonius gently chided me for my defence. 
Paetus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit 

(id.), Pcetus p resettled me all the books his father had left. 
Remark. — Under this head, even what the speaker himself 
thought under other circumstances may have the subjunctive. So 
also with quod, even the verb of saying may take the subjunctive. 
To this use also belonc^ non quia, non quod, introducing a reason 
expressly to deny it. Non quo, non quin, introduce a result clause, 
but with nearly the same meaning as non quod : as, 

pugiles ingemiscunt, non quod doleant, sed quia . . . (Tusc. ii. 

23), boxers groaii not with pai?i, but, &c. 
non quia philosophia . . . percipi non posset (id. i. i), not that 

philosophy cannot be found, &c. 
non quoniam hoc sit necesse (Verr. ii. 9), not that this is 

necessary. 
Note. — This usa^e probably originates in apodosis, the condition 
being the supposed truth of the speaker, the main subject. 

2. A clause depending upon another subjunctive clause 
(or equivalent Infinitive) will also take the subjunctive if it 
is regarded as an integral "part of that clause : as, 



66: 2. 67.] INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 187 

non pugnabo quominus utrum velis eligas (Div. C. i8), I vjill 
not oppose your taking ivhich you will, 

imperat, dum res adjudicetur, hominem ut asservent : cum 
judicatum sit, ad se adducant (Verr. iv. 22), he orders them 
ivhile the affair is under judgment^ to keep the man ; nvheii he 
is judged^ to bri?tg him to him. 

etenim quis tarn dissolute animo est, qui haec cum videat, 
tacere ac neglegere possit (Rose Am. 11), for who is so reck- 
less of spirit^ that when he sees these thi7igs, he can keep sile?it 
and pass them by f 

si tibi hoc Siculi dicerent, nonne id dicerent quod cuivis pro- 
bare deberent (Div. C. 6), if the Sicilians said this to 
youj would they fiot say a thi?ig which they must prove to 
everybody ^ 

mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui sint in proeliis 
interfecti (Or. 44), it is the custo^n at Athens for those to be 
publicly eulogized who have been slain in battle. 

Note. — The subjunctive in this use is either a Protasis or Apodosis, 
and partakes of the nature of the clause on which it depends, — or 
at least of its original nature. In all cases except purpose and resulty 
this is clearly seen. In these, the case is undoubtedly the same ; as 
the Purpose has, of course, a future sense, and the Eesult is a branch 
of apodosis. (See " Essay on the Latin Subjunctive,^' page 27.) 

It is often difficult to distinguish between this construction and the 
preceding. Thus, in imperat ut ea fiant quce opus essent, assent may 
stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse (under 1,6); or 
it may stand for erunt, and will then be Protasis (under 2). 

67. Indirect Discourse. 

A Direct Quotation is one which gives the exact 
words of the original speaker or writer. An Indirect 
Quotation is one which adapts the original words to 
the construction of the sentence in which they are 
quoted. 

Remark. — The term Indirect Discourse (oratio obliqua) 

is used to designate all clauses — even single clauses in a sentence 
of different construction — which indirectly express the word or 
thought of any person other than the speaker or writer, or even 
his own under other circumstances. But it is more strictly used 
to include those cases only in which the form of Indirect Quotation 
is given to some complete proposition or citation, which may be 
extended to a narrative or address of any length, — as found in the 
Speeches of Cassar and Livy, — the form being dependent on some 
word of saying, &c., with which it is introduced. 

The term Direct Discourse (oratio recta) includes all other 
forms of expression, whether narration, question, exclamation, or 
command. «• 



188 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [67: I. 

1. Indirect Narrative, In a Declaratory Sentence in 
indirect discourse, the principal verb is in the Infinitive, and 
its subject in the Accusative. All subordinate clauses take 
the Subjunctive : as, 

esse nonnullos quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat (B.G. i. 17), 
there are some^ tvkose influence most prevails. [In direct dis- 
course, sunt nonnulli . . . valetr\ 

nisi jurasset, scelus se facturum [esse] arbitrabatur (Verr. i. 
47), he thought he should incur guilty unless he should take 
the oath [direct, nisi Juravero^ faciam~\. 

Stoici negant quidquam esse bonum, nisi quod honestum sit 
(Fin. ii. 21), the Stoics assert that nothing is good but what 
is right. [The verb nego is used in preference to dico with 
a negative.] 

a. Subject- Accusative. The subject of the infinitive in 
Indirect Discourse must regularly be expressed, even though it is 
wanting in the Direct : as, 

orator sum, I am an orator ; [dicit] se esse oratorem, [he says] 
he is an orator. 

But rarely, it is omitted, when it would be easily understood : as, 

ignoscere imprudentiae dixit (B. G. iv. 27), he said he pardoned 

their rashness. 
rogavi pervenissentne Agrigentum : dixit pervenisse (Verr. iv. 

12), / asked -whether they [the curtains] had come to Agri- 

gentufn : he answered that they had. 

Remark. — After a relative, or quam {than), where the verb 
would be the same as that of the main clause, it is usually omitted, 
and its subject is attracted into the accusative : as, 

te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus meipsum commoveri (Cat. 
M. i), I suspect that you are disturbed by the same things as I, 

h* Relative Clauses. A subordinate clause merely explana- 
tory, and containing statements which are regarded as true inde- 
pendently of the quotation, takes the Indicative. It often depends 
merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he will use the in- 
dicative or subjunctive : as, 

quis neget hsec omnia quae videmus deorum potestate admin- 
istrari (Cat. iii. 9), who can deny that all these things ive see 
are ruled by the foiver of the gods P 

cujus ingenio putabat ea quse gesserat posse celebrari (Arch. 9), 
by whose genius he thought that those deeds which he had done 
could be celebrated. [Here the fact expressed by quce gesserat, 
though not explanatory, is felt to be true without regard to 
the quotation : quce gessisset would mean, what Marius 
thought he had done.] 



67: I.] INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 18^ 

Remark. — Some clauses introduced by relatives are really 
independent, and take the accusative and infinitive. Rarely, also, 
subordinate clauses take this construction. The infinitive con-^ 
struction is regularly continued after a comparative with quam : as, 

Marcellus requisivisse dicitur Archimedem ilium, quem cum 
audisset interfectum permoleste tulisse (Verr. iv. 58), Mar- 
cellus is said to have sought for Archimedes^ a7id vjhen he 
heard that he was slain, to have bee7i greatly distressed- 

unumquemque nostrum censent philosophi mundi esse par- 
tem, ex quo [=et ex eo] illud natura consequi (Fin. iii. 19), 
the philosophers say that each o?ie of us is a part of the utti- 
verse, from -which this naturally follows, 

quemadmodum si non dedatur obses pro rupto se foedus habi- 
turum, sic deditam inviolatam ad suos remissurum (Liv. ii. 
13), [he saj's] as in case the hostage is not given up he ivill 
consider the treaty as brokeit, so if given up he will return 
her U7iharmed to her friends, 
addit se prius occisum iri ab eo quam me violatum iri (Att. ii. 
20), he adds that he himself zv ill be killed by him, before I 
shall be i7ijured. 

The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam 
(see § 70). 

c. Conditional Sentences. In a conditional sentence, the 
Indicative in Apodosis is in any case represented by the corre- 
sponding tense of the Infinitive. The Subjunctive is represented 
by the Future Participle with fuisse for the pluperfect, and the 
Future Infinitive for the other tenses (compare the use of the par- 
ticiple in urus with fui for the pluperfect subjunctive^. The 
Protasis, as a dependent clause, is in all cases Subjunctive : as, 

se non defuturum [esse] pollicetur, si audacter dicere velint 
(B. C. i. i), he promises not to fail, if they zvill speak their 
minds boldly [non deero si voletis]. 
Note. — The future infinitive, representing the imperfect subjunc- 
tive in Protasis, is for some reason very rare, and only four or five 
examples occur in classic authors. On the contrary, the form with 
fuisse is quite common. 

cf , Questions. A Question coming immediately after a verb 
of asking or the like is treated as an Indirect Question (see 
below, 2) ; but questions — generally rhetorical — coming in 
course of a long indirect discourse are treated like Declaratory 
Sentences : as, 

num etiam recentium injuriarum memoriam fse] deponere 
posse (B. G. i. 14], could he lay aside the memory of recent 
'wro7igs f [num possum .?] 

quem signum daturum fugientibus .? quem ausurum Alexandre 
succedere (Q^C iii. 5), who will give the sig7ial on the re- 
treat f who will dare to succeed Alexander f 



190 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [67: 2. 

Remark. —Generally real questions, expecting an answer 
(chiefly in the second person), take the subjunctive. Questions 
asked by the dubitative subjunctive must retain the subjunctive 
(see 2, h) : as, 

quid sibi vellent (B. G. i. 44), vjkat did they want F [quid 
vultis ?] 

2. Indirect Questions* An Indirect Question takes its 
verb in the Subjunctive: as, 

quid ipse sentiam exponam (Div. i. 6), / will explain what I 

think [direct, quid sentio\. 
id possetne fieri consuluit (id. 7), he consulted whether it could 

be done [direct, potestne^. 
quarn sis audax omnes intellegere potuerunt (Rose. Am. 31), 

all could understaiid how bold you are. 
doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 12), it is of no 

account whether I suffer or not, 
incerti quidnam esset (Jug. 49), U7tcertain what it was. 

Remark. — An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause, 
introduced by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, or particle), 
depending immediately on a verb, pr on any expression implying 
uncertainty or doubt. 

In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distin- 
guished from interrogative, as in the third example given above. 

d* The Future Indicative is represented in indirect questions 
by the participle in urus with the subjunctive of esse, — rarely by 
the simple subjunctive : as, 

prospicio qui concursus futuri sint (Div. in Csec), I foresee 

what throngs there will be [erunt]. 
quid sit futurum eras, fuge quserere (Hor. Od. i. ^), forbear to 

ask what will be on the morrow [erit, or futurum.est]. 

&• The Dubitative Subjunctive referring to future time remains 
unchanged except in tense : as, 

[quseritur] utrum Carthago diruatur, an Carthaginiensibus 

reddatur (De Inv. i. 12), [the question is] shall Carthage be 

destroyed, or restored to the Carthaginians. 
nee quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut speret aut timeat 

(Liv. xxii. 7), nor is atiy one assured what he shall hope or 
fear. [Here the participle with sit could not be used.] 
incerto quid peterent aut vitarent (Liv. xxviii. 36), since it was 

doubtful [abl. abs ] what they should seek or shun. 

C. The Subject of an indirect question is often, in colloquial 
usage and in poetry, attracted into the main clause as Object 
(^accusative of anticipation) : as, 

n6sti Marcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. viii. 10), you know 
how slow Marcellus is. — In like manner, 



67: 2,3] INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 191 

potestne igitur earum rerum quare futurse sint ulla esse prae- 
sensio (Div. ii. 5), ca7i there be, then, any forek7iowledge as 
to those things, -why they will occur f 

Remark. — In some cases the Object becomes Subject by a 
change of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and inter- 
roofative construction is the result : as, 

quidam ssepe in parva pecunid perspiciuntur quam sint leves 

(Lael. 17), /'/ is ofte7t seen, in a trifling matter of money, how 

unprincipled some people are. 
quemadmodum Pompeium oppugnarent a me indicati sunt 

(Leg. Ag. i. 2), it has been shown by me in what way they 

attacked Pompey, 

d* In early Latin and poetry, questions which elsewhere would 
have the Subjunctive as indirect often have the Indicative : as, 

non reputat quid laboris est (Amph. 172), he does not co?isider 

what a task it is. 
vineam quo in agro conseri oportet sic observato (Cato R.R 6), 

ifi what soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus. 

Note. — These cases are usually considered Direct questions ; but 
they occur (as above) where the question cannot be translated as 
direct without distortion of the meaning. 

e* A few expressions properly interrogative are used idiomati- 
cally as indefinites, and do not take a subjunctive : such are nescio 
quis, &c., mirum (or nimirum) quam or quantum, immane 
quantum, &c. : as, 

qui istam nescio quam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Tusc. 

iii. 6), who greatly extol that paiiilessness (whatever it is). 
mirum quantum profuit (Liv. ii. i), // helped marvellously. 

/• Occasionally, a virtual indirect question is introduced by si 
in the sense of whether (like ifm. English) : as, 

circumfunduntur hostes, si quern aditum reperire possent 
(B. G. vi. 37), the enemy pour round [to see] if they cam find 
entrance- 

visam si domi est (Heaut. 118), I will go see if he is at home. 

3. Indirect Commands. Alllmperative forms of speech 
take the Subjunctive in indirect discourse : as, 

reminisceretur veteris incommodi populi Romani (B. G. 13), 
remember [said he] the ancient disaster. Sic. [reminiscere]. 

ne committeret ut (ib.), do 7iot [said he] bri?ig it about [ne 
G#mmiseris]. 

finem orandi faciat (id. 20), let him make an end of entreaty 
[fac]. 



192 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 



[68. 



The following example may serve to illustrate some of the fore- 
going principles in a connected address : — 

Indirect Discourse, Direct Discourse, 



Si pacem populus Romanus 
cum Helvetiis faceret^ in earn 
partem ituros atque ibi futuros 
Helvetios, ubi eos Caesar con- 
stituisset atque esse voluisset : 
sin bello persequi perseveraret^ 
remi?iisceretur et veteris incom- 
modi populi Romani, et pris- 
tinae virtutis Helvetiorum. Quod 
improviso unum pagum ador- 
tus esset, cum ii qui flumen 
irajtsissent suis auxilium ferre 
non possent, ne ob eam rem aut 
suce magno opere virtuti tribue- 
ret^ aut ipsos desficeret : se ita 
a patribus majoribusque suis 
didicisse, ut magis virtute quam 
dolo contefiderent, aut insidiis 
niterefitur. Quare ne commit- 
teret, ut is locus ubi constitissent 
ex calamitate populi Romani et 
internecione exercit^s nomen 
caperet, aut memoriam pro- 
deret,—B. G. i. 13. 



Si pacem populus Romanus 
cum Helvetiis /aciet, in eam 
partem idunt atque ibi erunt 
Helvetii, ubi eos Caesar cofistit- 
erit atque esse voluerit : sin 
bello persequi perseverabit^ 
reminiscere [inquit] et veteris 
incommodi populi Romani, et 
pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum. 
Quod improviso unum pagum 
adortus es^ cum ii qui flumen 
transierant suis auxilium ferre 
non possent, ne ob eam rem 
aut tuae magno opere virtuti 
tribueris^ aut nos desfexeris : 
nos ita a patribus majoribusque 
nostris didicimus, ut magis vir- 
tute quam dolo contendainus^ 
aut insidiis nitamur. Quare, 
ne commiseris^ ut hie locus ubi 
constitimus ex calamitate populi 
Romani et internecione exerci- 
tias nomen capiat^ aut memo- 
riam prodat. 



68. Wishes and Commands. 

1. Wishes are expressed by the Subjunctive, often 
strengthened by the particles nt, utinam, si (early Latin), 
qui ; the primary tenses being used in reference to future 
time, the secondary to express a hopeless wish, — the imper- 
fect in present time, the pluperfect in past (see § 57, 4). 

Remark. — A periphrasis with velim, vellem, &c., is some- 
times used (57, 4, c). 

2. Commands are expressed by the Imperative or Sub- 
junctive (§ 57, 3, 7) ; Prohibitions by the Subjunctive, or 
by a periphrasis with noli or cave (§ 57, 7, a). The object 
of the command is given in a purpose-clause (§ 70, 3) with 
ut or ne, except after jubeo and veto (§ 70, 2). 

3. Indirectly quoted, all these forms of speech take the 
Subjunctive (see § 67, 3). 



69. 70.] CLAUSES. 193 



69. Relative Clauses. 

1. A simple relative, merely introducing a descriptive fact, 
takes the Indicative. 

2. The Subjunctive appears more or less frequently in 
many relative clauses (which have been already treated). 
These relatives always either — (1) are general relatives of 
Protasis ; or (2) express some logical connection between the 
relative and antecedent, or (3) have no effect at all upon the 
construction. These constructions are — 

1- General or Future Conditions in Protasis (§§ 59, 60, 61). 

2. a. Final Clauses (§ 64). 

&. Consecutive Clauses (§ 65). 

c. Relatives of Characteristic (§ 65, 2). 

d* Relatives implying Cause or Hindrance (§ 65, 2, e). 

e. Temporal Clauses of relative time (62, 2). 

3. a. Intermediate Clauses (§ 66). 

ft. Clauses in Indirect Discourse (§ 67). 



70. Substantive Clauses. 

A Substantive Clause is one which, like a noun, 
is the subject or object of a verb, or in apposition 
with a subject or object. 

Remark. — The Infinitive with the Accusative, though not 
i^ strictly a Clause, is equivalent to one, and may be treated as 
such. 

When a substantive clause is used as Subject, the verb to which 
it is subject is called Impersonal (§ 39), and its sign, in English, 
is IT ; when it is used as Object, it generally follows some verb 
of knowing, §*c. (§ 67, i) or of wishing or effecting, and its sign, 
in English, is that, or to (Infinitive). 

1. Classification. Substantive Clauses are of four 
kinds : — 1. The Accusative with the Infinitive, denoting an 
idea as thought or spoken (§ 67, i) ; 2. Indirect Questions 
(67, 2) ; 3. The Subjunctive with ut, ne, quo, quin, or 

9 



194 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [70: 1,2. 

quominus, denoting purpose or result; 4. The Indicative 
with quod, denoting a fact. But the Infinitive alone may 
take the place of either 1 or 3. 

2. Accusative and Infinitive, The Accusative with 
the Infinitive is used as the Object — 1. Of all verbs and 
expressions of knowing^ thinking, and telling (Indirect Dis- 
course, § 67, i) ; 2. Of jubeo and veto, and rarely of other 
verbs of commanding^ requesting, admonishing, sm^ the like; 
3. Sometimes of verbs of wishing: as, 

dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. i. 22), he says thai the 

height is held by the enemy, 
negat ullos patere portus (Liv. xxviii. 43), he says that no forts 

are ope?i. 
Labienum jugum montis adscendere jubet (id. 21), he orders 

Labienus to ascend the ridge of the hill. 
judicem esse me non doctorem volo (Ov. 33), I -wish to be a 
judge, not a teacher. 

a* After Passives. If the main verb is changed to the pas- 
sive, either (1) the Subject of the infinitive (like other objects of 
active verbs) becomes nominative, and the infinitive is retained ; or 
(2) the passive is used impersonally, and the clause retained 
as its Object. With verbs oi saying, &c., the former construction 
is more common, especially in the tenses of incomplete action ; 
with jubeo and veto it is always used : as, 

primi traduntur arte quadam verba vinxisse (Or. 13), they first 

are related to have joined words with a certai?t skill. 
jussus es renuntiari consul (Phil. ii. 32), you were under orders 

to be declared consul. 
in lautumias Sjracusanas deduci imperantur (Verr. v. 27), 

they are ordered to be taken to the stone-pits of Syracuse. 
hie accusare non est situs (Sest. 44), he was not allowed to 

accuse. 
prsedicari de se ac nominari volunt (Arch. 10), they wish to be 

talked of a7id known by 7iame, [Here the passive is used 

impersonally.] 
voluntaria morte interisse creditus est (Tac H. iv. 67), he was 

thought to have perished by voluntary death. 
nuntiatur piratarum naves esse in portu (Verr. v. 24), it is 

told that the ships of the pirates are 171 port. 

6. The poets extend the use of the passive to verbs which are 

not properly verba sentiendi : as, 

colligor dominse placuisse (Ov. Am. ii. 6, 61), /*/ is gathered 
[from this memorial] that I pleased 7ny 7iiistress, 



70: 2,3-] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 195 

c. Such indirect discourse may depend on any word implying 
speech or thought, though not strictly a verb of saying, &c. : as, 

COS redire jubet : se in tempore adfuturum esse (Liv. xxiv. 13), 
he orders them to return [promising] that he will be at ha?id 
in seasoft. 

orantes ut urbibus saltern — jam enim agros deploratos esse — 
opem senatus ferret (id. xvi. 6), ;prayi7ig that the se?iate 
'Would bring aid to the cities — for the fields [they said] were 
already give?t up as lost, 

d. Verbs of promising, expecting, threatening, swearing, and 
the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse, 
contrary to the English idiom (§ 67, i, a) ; but sometimes a simple 
complementary infinitive : as, 

me spero liberatum [esse] metu (Tusc. ii. 27), / trust I have 

been freed from fea r. 
minatur sese abire (Asin. iii. 3), he threate7is to go away, 

[Direct, abeo, I a7ti going away. ^ 
ex quibus sperant se maximum fructum esse captures (Lael. 21), 

from zvhich they hope to gain the utmost adva?itage. 
quem inimicissimum futurum esse promitto ac spondeo (Mur. 

41), who I promise and warrant will be the bitterest of 

enemies. 
dolor fortitudinem se debilitaturum minatur (Tusc. V. 27), pain 

threatens to wear down fortitude. 
pollicentur obsides dare (B. G. iv. 21), they promise to give hos- 
tages [compare Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs.] 

3. Clauses of Purpose. The clause with ut (nega- 
tive ne), developed from purpose, is us^ed as the Object of 
all verbs denoting an action directed towards the future. 
Such are — 

a. Verbs of commanding, asMng, admonishing, urging, and 

in general those denoting an influence upon some one (§ 64). 

These verbs rarely take the Infinitive (except jubeo and veto, 

which take it regularly) : as, 

' his uti conquirerent imperavit (B. G. i. 2), he ordered them to 
search. 
monent ut omnes suspiciones vitet (id. 20), he warns him to 
avoid all suspicion. 

h. Verbs of wishing and the like. These take also the simple 
Infinitive ; more commonly when the subject remains the same, less 
commonly when it is different (see 2, above) : as, 

cupio ut impetret (Capt. i. 2), I wish he may get it. 
cum nostri perspici cuperent (B. G. iii. 21), whefi our nie^i 
wished it to be seen. 



196 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [70: 3. 

mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. i. 6), I would rather you 

feared Cerberus. 
quos non tarn ulcisci studeo quam sanare (Cat. ii. 8), ivhom I 

do not care so much to punish as to cure, 

c. Verbs of permission, concession, and necessity. These take 
also the Infinitive : as, 

permisit ut partes faceret (De Or. ii. 90), permitted him to 
make divisions. 

vinum importari non sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do Jiot allow 
ivine to be imported. 

nullo se implicari negotio passus est (Lig. 3), he suffered him- 
self to be ta7igled i7t no busifiess. 

sint enim oportet si miseri sunt (Tusc. i 6), they must exist, if 
they are iv retched. 

Remark. — The clause with licet (usually without ut) is 
regularly used to express a concession in the sense of although. 

d. Verbs of determining, resolving, bargaining, which also 
take the Infinitive. Those of decreeing often take the participle 
in dus, on the principle of indirect discourse : as, 

edicto ne quis injussu pugnaret (Liv. v. 19), having commanded 
that no7ie should fight without orders. 

pacto ut victorem res sequeretur (id. xxviii. 21), having bar- 
gained that the property should belong to the victor. 

Regulus captivos reddendos non censuit (Off. i. 13), Regulus 
voted that the captives should be retur^ied. [He said, in giv- 
ing his opinion, captivi non reddendi sunt.'] 

6. Verbs of caution and effort. Those denoting an effort to 
hinder may also take quominus or ne : as, 

cura et provide ut nequid ei desit (Att. ii. 3), take care and see 

that he lacks nothttig. 
non deterret sapientem mors quominus . . . (Tusc. i. 38), death 

does not deter the -wise man from, &c. 
ne facerem impedivit (Fat. i. \), prevented me from doing. 

f. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, with ne affirmative 
and ne non or ut negative : as, 

ne animum oifenderet verebatur (B. G. i. 19), he feared he 

should offend the mind, &c. 
vereor ut tibi possim concedere (De Or. i. 9), I fear I cannot 

grant you. 
baud sane periculum est ne non mortem optandam putet 

(Tusc. V. 40), there is no danger of his not thinking death 

desirable. 

Remark. — The particle ut or ne is often omitted, — generally 
after verbs of wishing, necessity, permission ; with cave, die, fac ; 
and in indirect discourse, frequently after verbs of commanding 
and the like. 



70: 4-] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 197 

gr. With any verbs of the above classes, the poets may use the 
Infinitive : as, 

hortamur fari (^n. ii. 74), ive exhort [him] to sfeak, 

4. Clauses of Hesult. The clause with ut (negative 

ut non, &c.), developed from result, is used as the Object 

of verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort : as, 

commeatus ut portari possent efficiebat (B. G. ii. 5), /le made 
it possible that supplies could be bought. [Lit., he effected 
that, &c.] 

a. The substantive clause becomes the Subject of such verbs 

in the passive ; and hence is further used as the subject of verbs 

denoting it happens, it remains, it follows, and the like ; and even 

of the simple esse in the same sense, and other phrases : as, 

sequitur ut doceam (N. D. ii. 32), the 7iext thing is to show, &c. 
accidit ut asset plena luna (B. G. iv. 29), it chanced to be full 

moon. 
accedit ut conturber (Deiot. i), besides this I am troubled. 
reliquum est quarta virtus ut sit ipsa frugalitas (id.), it remains 

that the fourth virtue is thrift. 
quando fuit ut quod licet non liceret (Cael. 20), -when was it 

that what is nozv allowed was not allowed P 

b, A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows 
quam, after a comparative : as, 

perpessus est omnia potius quam indicaret (Tusc. i. 22), he 
efidured all, rather than betray, d:c. 

€• A result clause with ut is often used elliptically, in ex- 
clamations, with or without -ne (compare § 57, 8, g) : as, 

quanquam quid loquor.? te ut uUa res frangat (Cat. i. g),yet 

why do I ask f that anything should bend you ! 
egone ut te interpellem (Tusc. ii. 18), what, I interrupt you f 

Remark — The infinitive, in exclamations, usually refers to 
something actually occurring ; the subjunctive to something con- 
templated. 

d. The phrase tantum abest, it is so far [from being the 

case], besides a subject-clause (substantive) with ut, regularly 

takes another ut-clause (of result) depending on tantum : as, 

tantum abest ut nostra miremur, ut usque eo difficiles ac mor- 
osi simus, ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes (Or. 
29), so far from admiring our own matters, we are difficult 
a?id captious to that degree, that not Demosthejies himself 
satisfies us. [Here the first ut-clause depends directly on 
abest ; the second on tantu?n ; and the third on usque eo.'\ 



198 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [70: 4. 

e. The expressions facere ut, committere ut, often form a 
periphrasis for the simple verb (compare fore ut for the future 
infinitive) : as, 

invitus feci ut Flamininum e senatu eicerem (Cat. M. 12), it 
'was vjith reluctance that I expelled^ i&c* 

/• Rarely, a thought or idea is considered as a result, and 
takes the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and infini- 
tive (in this case a demonstrative usually precedes) : as, 

altera est res, ut . . . (Off. i. 20), the second point is that, Sc. 
praeclarum illud est, ut eos . . . amemus (Tusc iii. 29), this is 

a noble thing, that we should love, d:c. 
quae est igitur amentia, ut . . . ivhat folly is there then in de- 

7na7iding, i&c, 

g. Verbs and other expressions which imply hindering and the 

like, may take quin when the main verb is negative, formally or 

virtually : as, 

facere non possum quin . . . (Att. xii. 27), I cannot avoid, <^c. 
nihil prietermisi quin scribam . . . (Q^ F. iii. 3), / have left 

nothi7ig undone to write. 
ut nulla re impedirer quin (Att. iv. 2), that I might he hi7i' 

dered by 7tothi7tgfrom, &c. 
non humana ulla neque divina obstant quin (Sail. Ep. Mith. 

17), 710 hu7}ta7i or divi7ie laws prevent, but that, iS:c. 

Remark. — This usage is found especially with the phrase non 
dubito and similar expressions making a kind of indirect dis- 
course : as, 

non dubitabat quin ei crederemus (Att. vi. 2), he did not doubt 
that %ve believed hiin. 

illud cave dubites quin ego omnia faciam (Fam. v. 20), do not 
doubt that I will do all. 

quis ignorat quin (Flacc. 27), who is ignora7it that, &c. /* 

neque ambigitur quin Brutus pessimo publico id facturus fue- 
rit si priorum regum alicui regnum extorsisset (Livy, ii. i), 
nor is there any question that Brutus, if he had wrested the 
ki7igdo7n fro7n a7iy 07ie of the for7ner ki77gs, would have done it 
with the worst results to the state [direct 6\?>zo\xv%q, fecisset\ 

Tu Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of 
saying as well as of commanding or effecting and the like, and 
may be construed accordingly : as, 

sequitur illico esse causas immutabiles (Fat. 12), it follows 
directly that there are U7ialterable causes. [The regular 
construction with sequor used of a logical sequence.] 

laudem sapientiae statue esse maximam (Div. v. 13), / hold 
that the glory of wisdo7n is the greatest. 



70: 5-] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 199 

statuunt ut decern milia hominum mittantur (B. G. xii. 21), 

they resolve that 10,000 meti shall be sent. 
res ipsa monebat tempus esse (Att. x. 8), the thing itself war tied 

that it ivas time [monere ut, -warn to do so7nething\. 
fac mihi esse persuasum (N. D. i. 27), suppose that I am per- 
. suaded of that [facere ut, accomplish that\ 
hoc volunt persuadere non interire animos (B. G. vi. 13), they 

wish to convifice that souls do 7iot perish. 
huic persuadet uti ad hostes transeat (B. G. iii. 18), persuades 

him to pass over to the enemy. 

Note. — The infinitive, with a subject, in this construction is in- 
direct discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive 
sometimes found with these verbs. 

5. Indicative with quod. The clause in the Indicative 

with quod is' used (more commonly as Subject) when the 

statement is regarded as a fact : as, 

alteram est vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium 
conferunt (Off. i. 6), it is another faulty that some bestow too 
much zeal, (£rc. [Here ut with the subjunctive could be 
used, meaning that they should^ or the accusative and infin- 
itive, meaning to more abstractly; qaod makes it a fact that 
men do, &c.] 

inter inanimum et animal hoc maxime interest, quod animal 
agit aliquid (Ac. ii. 12), there is this chief difference, tfcc, 
that an animal has an aim. 

quod rediit nobis mirabile videtur (Off. iii. 31), that he [Reg- 
ulus] returned seems wonderful to us. [Redisse would mean 
he should have returned.~\ 

a* In colloquial language, the clause with quod appears as 
an accusative of specification, corresponding to the English 
WHEREAS : as, 

quod de domo scribis (Fam. xiv. 2), as to what you write of 

the house. 
quod mihi de nostro statu gratularis, minime miramur te tuis 
praeclaris operibus laetari (Att. i. 5), as to your congratulat- 
ing" me on our condition, no wonder you are pleased with your 
own fioble works. 

b. Verbs of feeling and its expression take either quod (quia) 
or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) : as, 

quod scribis . . . gaudeo (Q^F. iii. i). I am glad that you write. 
quae perfecta esse vehementer laetor (Rose. Am. 47), I greatly 

rejoice that this is finished. 
facio libenter quod eam non possum praeterire (Leg. i. 24). / 

am glad that I cannot pass it by* 

Rkmark. — Rarely, an apparent substantive clause, with miror 
and similar expressions, is introduced by si (really a Protasis) : as, 
miror si quemquam amicum habere potuit (Lael. 15), I should 
wonder if he could ever have a friend. 



200 syntax of the verb. [71 : i, 2. 

71. Questions. 

Questions are introduced by Interrogative Pronouns, 
Adverbs, or Particles, and are not distinguished by 
the order of words, as in English. 

The Interrogative Particles are, an, utrum, num, and the 
enclitic -ne (see page 86). For other interrogative words, see 
list, page 49. 

1. Interrogative 1^ articles. The enclitic -ne is used 
in questions asked for information merely ; nonne, when the 
answer yes, and num. when the answer no, is expected or im- 
plied: as, 

meministine me in senatu dicere (Cat. i. 3), do you remember 

my sayhig in the senate f 
nonne animadvertis quam multi salvi pervenerint (N. D. iii. 

37), do you not observe how many have come through safe f 
num dubium est (Rose. Am. 37), there is no doubt ^ is there P 

Kemark. — The interrogative particle is sometimes omitted: 
as, 

patera tua consilia non sentis (Cat. i. i), do you not see that 
your flatis are manifest f 

a. In Indirect Questions, num loses its peculiar force : as, 

quaero num aliter even i rent (Fat. 3). / ask -whether they 
-would turn out differently, 

h. The form of Indirect questions is the same as that of Direct ; 
the difference being only in the verb, which regularly takes the 
subjunctive (§ 71, 2). 

Remark. — In English, indirect questions are introduced by 
interrogatives, or by the particle whether. 

c. The enclitic -ne is often added to interrogative words when 
not required : as, utrumne, numne, anne. 

d* The expressions nescio an, dubito an, and the like, incline 
to the Affirmative, — / donH know but, 

2. Double Questions, In Double or Alternative Ques- 
tions, utmm or -ne, whether, stands in the first member ; an, 
anne, or ; annon, necne, or not, in the second : as, 

utrum nescis, an pro nihilo id putas (Fam. x. 26), don't you 
know f or do you think nothing of it /* 



71: 2, 3-] QUESTIONS. 201 

quaero servosne an liberos (Rose. Am. 27). / ask whether 
slaves or free. \\\^x^ servos aut liberos would mean, were 
there a7iy^ either slaves or free.] 

Remark. — In direct questions, annon is more frequently 
found in the alternative ; in indirect, necne. 

a* The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first mem- 
ber ; when -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second : as, 

Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio (Manil. 19), shall I say to Ga- 

binius or to Pompey P 
sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 18), are these your words 

or not / 

h. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied ; and an 
(anne) alone asks a question — usually with indignation or sur- 
prise : as, 

an tu miseros putas illos (Tusc. i. 7), what I do you think those 
men zvretched f 

€• The second member may be omitted, when utrum asks a 
question to which there is no alternative : as, 

utrum in clarissimis est civibus is quem. . . . (Flacc. 19), is he 
amo7tg the noblest citizens^ whom, d;c, 

d. The following exhibits the various forms of alternative 

questions : — 

utrum ... an 

... an (anne) 

-ne ... an 

. . . ne 

3, Question and Answer. As there is no word in 

Latin meaning simply yes or no, in answering a question the 

verb is generally repeated : as, 

valetne, is he well f valet, yes {^Jie is welt). 

eratne tecum, was he with you / non erat, no {he was not), 

a. An intensive or negative particle is sometimes used in 
answer to a direct question : thus immo {nay but) , vero {in 
irutli), or etiam {even so) may have the meaning of yes ; and non 
{not), or minime {least-of-all) , of no. 

h. In the answer to an alternative question, one member of 

the alternative must be repeated : as, 

tune an frater erat, was it you or your brother ? 
ego [eram], it was I. 

Note. — Tune aut pater would mean, was it either of you? 

9* 



202 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [72: I. 



72. Participles. 

The Participle expresses the action of the verb in 
the form of an adjective ; but has a partial distinction 
of tense, and generally governs the case of its verb. 

1. Distinctions of Tense* The Present participle de- 
notes the action as not completed ; the Perfect as completed ; 
the Future as still to take place. 

a* Present. The Present participle has several of the irregu- 
lar uses of the present indicative (compare § 58, 2) : as, 

quaerenti mihi jamdiu certa res nulla veniebat in mentem 

(Fam. iv. 13), though J hadlo7ig sought^ ?w certam thing came 

to 7ny mind (of. ib. a). 
C. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentem dividenti (Cat. M. 4), he 

resisted Flaminius while attempting to divide^ &c. (cf. b), 
iens in Pompeianum bene mane haec scrips! (Att. iv. 9), / 

write this when about going to 7ny place at Pompeii (cf. c). 

Hence it is used in late writers to denote purpose, 

h. Perfect. The Perfect participle of a few deponent verbs 
is used nearly in the sense of a Present. Such are, regularly, 
ratus, solitus, veritus; commonly, fisus, ausus, secutus, and 
occasionally others, especially in later writers : as, 

cohortatus milites docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the me7tj 

he showed^ &c. 
iratus dixisti (Mur. 2P)-, you spoke in a passio7i. 
oblitus auspicia (Phil. i. 13), forgetting the auspices* 
insidias veritus (B. G. ii. 11), fearing ambuscade, 
imperio potitiis (Liv. xxi. 2), holdifig the command, 
ad pugnam congressi (id. iv. 10), meeting in fight. 
rem incredibilem rati (Sail. C 48), thinking it incredible, 

C, The present participle, wanting in the Passive, is usually 
supplied by a clause with dum or cum ; rarely by the participle 
in dus: as. 

Die, hospes, Spartae, nos te hie vidisse jacentes, 
Dum Sanctis patriae legibus obsequimur. 

Tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that we lie here obedient to our 
country's sacred laws. [Here dum obsequimur is a transla- 
tion of the Greek 'jT€td6/LLevoL.~\ 

crucibus adfixi aut flammandi (Ann. xv. 44), crucified or set 
on fire [compare note under § T3]. 



72 2, 3] PARTICIPLES. 203 

2. Adjective use. The present and perfect participles 
are used sometimes as attributes, nearly like adjectives : as, 

cum antiquissimam sententiam turn comprobatam (Div. i. 5), 

a view at Ofice most ancient and approved. 
signa nunquam fere ementientia (id. 9), signs hardly ever 

deceitful. 
auspiciis utuntur coactis (id. 15), they use forced auspices, 

a. Thus they are used, like adjectives, as nouns : as, 

sibi indulgentes et corpori deservientes (Leg. i. 13), the self 

indulge?it, and slaves to the body. 
recte facta paria esse debent (Par. iii. i), right deeds ought to 

be like in value. 
male parta male dilabuntur (Phil. ii. 27), ill got ^ ill spent. 
consuetude valentis (De Or. ii. 44), the habit of a ma7i iti health. 

h. So, also, they are connected with nouns by esse and simi- 
lar verbs : as, 

videtis ut senectus sit operosa et semper agens aliquid et 
moliens (Cat. M. 8), you see how busy old age is, always 
aiming and trying at something. 

Gallia est omnis divisa (B. G. i. i), all Gaul is divided. 

locus qui nunc Sceptus est (Liv. i. 8), the place which is now 
enclosed. 

C. From this adjective use arise the compound tenses of the 

passive, — the participle of completed actioii \Yith. the incomplete 

tenses of esse developing the idea of past time : as, 

interfectus est, he was (or has been) killed, lit., he is haviftg- 
been-killed [i.e., already slain~\. 

d. In tiie best writers (as Cicero) this participle, when used 
with the tenses of completed action, retains its proper force ; but 
in later writers the two sets of tenses (as, amatus sum or fui) 
are often used indiscriminately : as, 

[leges] cum quse latae sunt tum vero quae promulgatae fuerunt 
(Sest. 25), the laws, both those which were proposed., and 
those which were published. \^\\q proposal oi tlie laws was 
a single act: hence latce stent is a pure perfect. The publish- 
ing, or posting, was a continued state, which is indicated by 
promulgatce, 2iVid fuerunt is the pure perfect.] 

arma quae fixa in parietibus fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Div^ 

i. 34), the arms which had bee?i faste?ied on the walls were 

found upon the grothid. [Compare occupati sunt et fuerunt 

(Off. i. 17) : the difference between this and the preceding 

is, that occupatus can be used only as an adjective.] 

3. Predicate use. The Present and Perfect participles 
are often used as a predicate, where in English a clause 



204 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [72: 3. 

would be used to express time^ cause, occasion, condition, 
concession, characteristic, manner^ circumstance: as, 

vereor ne turpe sit dicere incipientem (Mil. i), I fear it maybe 

a dishonor [to me] -when begijining to speak. 
salutem insperantibus reddidisti (Marc. 7), you have restored 

a safety which ive did not hope. 
nemo ei neganti non credidisset (Mil. 19), no one would have 

disbelieved him whefi he denied. 

Remark. — This use is especially frequent in the Ablative Ab- 
solute (see § 54, 10, 6 and Note). A co-ordinate clause is some- 
times compressed into a perfect participle ; and a participle with 
a negative expresses the same idea which in English is given by 
without: as, 

imprudentibus nostris (B. G. v. 15), while our men were not 

looking. 
miserum est nihil proficientem angi (N. D. iii. 5), /*/ is wretched 

to vex one's self without effecting afiything. 
instructos ordines in locum sequum deducit (Sail. C. 59), he 

draws up the li?ies, and leads them to level ground. 
ut hos transductos necaret (B. G. v. 5), that he might carry 

thefn over afid put them to death. 

a. A noun and passive participle are often so united that the 
participle and not the noun contains the main idea (compare the 
participle in indirect discourse in Greek : G. 280) : as, 

ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), before the city 

was built or building. 
illi libertatem civium Romanorum imminutam non tulerunt; 

vos vitam ereptam negligetis (Manil. 5), they did not endure 

the infringement of the citizens^ liberty; will you disregard 

the destruction of their life f 

So with opus : as, 

opus est viatico facto (Plaut. Trin.), tJiere is need of laying in 

prolusion. 
maturato opus est (Livy viii. 13), there is no need of haste. 

[Here there is no noun, as the verb is used impersonally.] 

ft. The perfect participle with habeo (rarely with other verbs) 

is almost the same in meaning as a perfect active : as, 

fidem quem habent spectatam jam et diu cognitam (Div. C. 4), 
my fidelity^ which they have proved and lo?ig known, 

(Hence the perfect with have in modern languages.) 

c. The perfect participle, with verbs of effecting, effort, or 
the like (also with volo where esse may be understood, cf. § 70, 
3, 6), expresses more forcibly the idea of the verb : - as, 

praefectos suos multi missos fecerunt (Verr. iv. 58), ma?iy dis- 
charged their officers. 



72: 4, 5-] PARTICIPLES. 205 

hie transactum reddet omne (Capt. 345), he iv ill get it all done* 
me excusatum volo (Verr. i. 40), I -wish to be excused, 

d. The present participle is sometimes nearly equivalent to an 

infinitive, but expresses the action more vividly (after facio, in- 

duco, and the like, used of authors, and after verbs of sense) : as, 

Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem (N. D. i. 11), Xenophott 
represents Socrates disputing. 

4. Future ^Participle. The Future Participle (except 
faturus and venturus) is rarely used in simple agreement 
with a noun, except by later writers. 

a. The future participle is chiefly used with esse in a peri- 
phrastic conjugation (see § 40, a) : as, 

morere, Diagora, non enim in caelum adscensurus es (Tusc. i. 
46), die, for you are not likely to go to heaven. 

conclave illud ubi erat mansurus si . . . (Div. i. 15), that cham- 
ber where he ivould have staid if, dec. 

sperat adolescens diu se victurum (Cat. M. 19), the young man 
hopes to live long (§ 6T, i). 

neque petiturus unquam consulatum videretur (Off. iii. 20), 
and seemed unlikely ever to seek the consulship. 

By later writers it is also used in simple agreement to express 
likelihood or purpose, or even an apodosis : as, 

cum leo regem invasurus incurreret (Q^ C. viii. i), -when a 
lion rushed on to attack the king, 

rediit belli casum de integro tentaturus (Liv. xvii. 62), he re- 
turned to try the chafices of -war anew. 

ausus est rem plus famae habituram (Liv. ii. 10), he dared a 
thing which would have more repute, 

[See also examples in § 59, i, 5.] 

6. With past tenses of esse, the future participle is often 
equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive (§ 59, 3, e), 

5. Gerundive, The Gerundive, in its participial or ad- 
jective use, denotes necessity or propriety, 

a. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and per- 
fect participles, in simple agreement with a noun ; as, 

fortem et conservandum virum (Mil. 38), a brave man, and 
worthy to be preserved, 

b. The most frequent use of the gerundive is with esse in a 

second periphrastic conjugation (§ 40, b) : as, 

non agitanda res erit (Verr. vi. 70), will not the thing have to 
be agitated? 



206 SYNTAX OF THK VERB. [73: I, 2* 

Remark. — The gerundive in this construction is passive in 
meaning. But in early Latin, and occasionally elsewhere, it is 
used impersonally, governing the accusative ; and it is regularly so 
used with utor, fruor, &c., governing the ablative (sometimes 
called the nominative of the gerund) : as, 

via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. M. 2), ^/le way we 
have to enter. 

agitandumst vigilias (Trin. 869), I have got to stand guard. 

[Compare Greek verbal in -reoq, G. 281.] 
c. It is also used to denote purpose after verbs signifying io 
give, deliver, agree for, have, receive, undertake, demand: as, 
redemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. ii. 

21), the contractor who had undertaken to 7nake that column 

[the regular construction with this class of verbs]. 
jEdem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. ii. 50), he had the 

temple of Castor to take care of. 
naves atque onera diligenter adservanda curabat (id. vi. 56), 

he took care that the ships a7id cargoes should be kept. 

For the Gerundive after verbs of decreeing, see § 70, 3, d. 
For the Ablative Absolute, see § 54, 10, 6. 

73. Gerund and Gerundive. 

1. Gerund* The Gerund is a verbal noun, retaining the 
government of the verb, and modified b}^ adverbs, but in 
grammatical construction following the same rules as nouns. 

Remark. — The use of the Gerund, in the oblique cases, cor- 
responds to the use of the Infinitive as Subject (§ 57, 8, a), its 
nominative form being found only in the impersonal use of the 
participle in dus : as, 

ars bene disserendi et vera ac falsa dijudicandi (De Or. ii. 38), 
the art of discoursing well, aiid distinguishi?tg the true afid 
false. [Here the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguish- 
ing, if used in the nominative, would be expressed by the 
infinitive disserere and dijudicare.'\ 
juveni parandum, seni utendum est (Sen. Ep. 36), // is for the 
young to get, for the old to enjoy (compare § 51, 3, 4). 

2. Gerundive. When the gerund would have an object 
in the accusative, the Gerundive is generally used instead, 
agreeing with the noun, and in the case which the gerund 
would have had : as, 

paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), readier to 
u7idergo all da^igers. [Here subeunda agrees with pericula, 
which is itself governed by ad: the construction with the 
gerund would be, ad subeunduin, <&c. ; ad governing the 
gerund, and the gerund governing the accusative pericula.~\ 



73: 2,3] GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 207 

exercendae memoriae gratia (Off. i. i^),for the sake of trainitig- 
the ynemory. [Here the gerund construction would be, exer- 
cendi memoriam.~\ 

Remark. — The verbs utor, fruor, &c. (§ 54, 6, c?), are 
treated like verbs governing the Accusative, as they do in early 
Latin : as, 

expetuntur divitiae ad perfruendas voluptates (Off. i. 8), riches 
are sought for the e?ijoy7ne?it of pleasure. 

Note. — The gerundive construction is probably the original one. 
The Participle in dus seems to have had a present passive force as in 
secundus (from sequor), rotundus, volvendis, annis (Virg.), flainmandl 
(Tac), from which the idea of necessity was developed through that 
of futurity, as in the development of the subjunctive. Consiliam urbis 
delendce would thus have meant a plan of a city being destroyed [in 
process of destruction], then about to be destroyed, then to be de- 
stroyed, then a plan ^f destroying the city, the two words becoming 
fused together as in ah urbe conditd. The gerund is simply an imper- 
sonal use of the participle, in its original present sense, retaining the 
case of its verb, as in agitandum est vigilias ; quid opus est facto ? 

3. Construction. The Gerund (if of transitive verbs, 
with a noun in government) and the Gerundive (with a noun 
in agreement) are used, in the oblique cases, in the construc- 
tions of nouns, as follows : — 

a» Genitive. The Genitive is used after nouns or adjectives 
in the constructions of the objective genitive (§ 50, 3) ; more 
rarely in the predicate after esse, or as a genitive of quality : as, 

neque consilii habendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato (B. G. 

iv. 14), tijne being give7i neither for forming plans nor for 

takiftg arms [objective genitive after spatio']. 
ne conservandae quidam patriae causa (Off. i. 45), not even in 

order to save the country. 
Vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. M. 20), it is the best end of life. 
non tarn commutandarum rerum quam evertendarum cupidos 

(id. ii. i), desirous not so much of chaftging as of destroying 

the state. 
quae res evertendae reipublicae solent esse (Verr. iii. 53), which 

things ge7ier ally tend to the overthrow of the commonwealth. 
cognoscendae antiquitatis (Ann. ii. 59), to study old times. 

[Here gratia is, by a rare construction, omitted.] 
The genitive of the Gerund is, in a few cases, used (like a noun) 
with the genitive of an object agreeing neither in gender nor 
number : as, 

ejus videndi cupidus (Ter. Hec), eager to see her. 

reiciendi trium judicum potestas (Inv. ii. 2), the power of 

challenging three jurors. 
Remark. — In the genitive, the construction of the gerund and 
gerundive are about equally common. 



208 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [73: 3. 

6. Dative. The Dative is used after the adjectives (and 
rarely nouns) which are followed by the dative of nouns (§ 51, 6) ; 
also, in a few expressions after verbs : as, 

praeesse agro colendo (Rose. Am. 18), to take charge of tillage, 

esse solvendo, to be able to fay. 

genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. xxxii. 10), a 

sort of armor suited to the defe?ice of the body. 
reliqua tempora demetiendis fructibus et percipiendis accom- 
modata sunt (Cat. M. 19), the other seasons are fitted to reap 
and gather in the harvest. 
diem praestituit operi faciendo (Verr. ii. 56), he appointed a day 
for doing the work. 
It is also used in certain phrases belonging to the civil law, after 
nouns meaning officers, offices, elections, &c. : as, 

comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. i"]), 'elections for nomin- 

ating consuls. 
triumvirum coloniis deducundis (Jug. 42), a triumvir for 

leading out colonies. 

€• Accusative. The Accusative is used after the prepositions 
ad, inter, circa, ob (rarely in and ante) ; most frequently after 
ad, denoting ^wr^o^e (compare § 72, 4) : as, 

vivis non ad deponendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam 
(Cat. i. 2), you live^ not to put ofi] but to co7ifirm your daring, 

inter agendum (Eel. ix. 24), -while driving. 

me vocas ad scribendum (Or. 10), you call me to write, 

d* Ablative. The Ablative is used to express means or in- 
strument; also manner (often by later writers, in a sense equiv- 
alent to the present participle) ; after comparatives ; and after the 
prepositions ab, de, ex, in, and (rarely) pro and cum: as, 
multa poUicendo persuadet (Jug. 46), he persuades by large 

promises. 
his ipsis legendis (Cat. M. 7), by reading these very things. 
nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off. 

i. 15), no duty is more i7nporta?it than gratitude. 
in re gerenda versari (Cat. M. 6), to be employed in affairs. 
Latine loquendo cuivis par (Brut. 34), equal to a?iy man in 

speaking JLatin. 
nullis virtutis praeceptis tradendis (Off. i. 2), without giving 

any precepts of virtue, 
obscuram atque humilem conciendo ad se multitudinem (Liv. 

i. 8), calling to them a mean and obscure multitude. 
Remark. — The gerund is occasionally found in apposition with 
a noun : as, 

ad res diversissima^, parendum atque imperandum (Livy, xxi. 
3), for the most widely different things obeying a?id com- 
ma 7idi 71 g. 
Note. — From the ablative of manner comes the Italian and Spanish 
form of the participle, the true participle form becoming an adjective. 



74: I, 2.] SUPINE. 209 



74. Supine. 

The Supine is a verbal noun, having no distinction 
of tense or person, and is limited to two uses. 

Note. — The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension. 
The form in um is the accusative of the end of motion. The form 
in u is probably dative of purpose, though possibly ablative. 

1. Former Supine. The Supine in nm is used after 
verbs of motion to express the purpose of the motion; it 
governs the case of its verb, and is modified by adverbs : as, 

quid est, imusne sessum.? etsi admonitum venimus te, non 
flagitatum (De Or. iii. 5), //otv now, shall we be seated? 
though we have come to remind not to entreat you. 

nuptum collocasse (B. G. i. 18), to establish in marriage. 

venerunt questum injurias (Liv. iii. 25), they came to complain 
of wrongs. 

Remark. — The supine in um is used especially after eo; and 
with the passive infinitive iri forms the future infinitive passive 
(see § 55, 3, 6, Rem.) : as, 

fuere cives qui rempublicam perditum irent (Sail. C. 36), there 
were citizens who went about to ruin the republic. 

non Graiis servitum matribus ibo (^n. ii. 786), I shall not go 
in slavery to the Grecian dames, 

si scisset se trucidatum iri (Div. ii. 9), if he [Pompey] had 
know7i that he was going to be murdered, 

2. Latter Supine. The Supioe in u is used only after 
a few adjectives, and the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, to de- 
note that in respect to which the quality is asserted : as, 

O rem non modo vi.su foedam, sed etiam auditu (Phil. ii. 25), 
a thing not only shocking to see, but even to hear of! 

quaerunt quid optimum factu sit (Verr. ii. 27), they ask what is 
best to do. 

humanum factu aut inceptu (Andr. 236), a human thing to do 
or undertake. 

si hoc fas est dictu (Tusc. v. 13), if this is lawful to say. 

So rarely with verbs : as, 

pudet dictu (Agric. 32), it is shame to tell. 

Remark. — The supine in u is found especially with such 
adjectives as indicate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and 
those which denote ease, difficulty, and the like. But with facilis, 
difficilis, jucundus, the construction of ad with the gerund is 
more common. The Infinitive is often used in the same significa- 
tion, by the poets, with all these adjectives. 



210 GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX. [75. 



75. General Rules of Syntax. 

1. Nouns meaning the same thing agree in case (§ 46) . 

2. Adjectives agree with Nouns in gender, number, and case (47). 

3. Possessive Adjectives are used for the genitive, and in any 

case may have a genitive in agreement (47, 5). 

4. Relatives agree with their antecedents in gender and number ; 

their case depending on the construction of their clause (48). 

5. A Verb agrees with its Subject in number and person (49). 

6. Two or more singular subjects — also collective nouns, with 

quisque and uterque — may take a plural verb (49, i). 

7. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative (49, 2). 

8. A Noun used to limit or define another is in the Genitive (50). 

9. The Genitive is used to denote the author, owner, source, and 

(with adjectives) measure or quality (50, i). 

10. Words denoting a part are followed by the genitive of the 

whole to which the part belongs (50, 2). 

11. Certain adjectives of Quantity arje used in the genitive to 

express indefinite Value (50, i, i), 

12. Many words of memory and feeling, knowledge or ignorance, 

fulness and ivant, — also verbals and participles used as ad- 
jectives, — govern the genitive (50, 3). 

13. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the gen- 

itive of the charge or penalty (50, 4, b), 

14. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object (51). 

15. Words of likeness, fitness, nearness, service, or help are fol- 

lowed by the dative (51, 5, 6). 

16. Verbs meaning to favor, help, please, serve, trust, and their 

contraries, — also to believe, persuade, com7nand, obey, envy, 
threaten, pardon, and spare, — govern the dative (51, 2, a). 

17. The Dative is used after esse, to be, to denote the Owner (51, 3). 

18. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, 

post, prae, pro, sub, super, govern the Dative (51, 2, d), 

19. Verbs of giving, telling, sending, and the like — and some- 

times of comparing and taking away — govern the accu- 
sative and dative (51, i). 

20. The dative is used to denote the purpose or end ; often with 

another dative of the person or thing affected (51, 5). 

21. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object (52). 

22. The subject of the Infinitive mood is in the accusative (52, 4, b). 

23. Time how long and Distance how far are in the accusative. 

24. The accusative is used adverbially, or for specification (52, 3). 

25. Verbs of naming, choosing, asking, and teaching govern two 

accusatives (52, 2). 



75.] GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 211 

26. The Ablative is used of cause, manner, means, instrument, 

quality, specification, 2ind price (54). 

27. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is in the ablative 

with ab (54, 4). 

28. Words denoting separation and plenty or want — also opus 

and usus signifying need — govern the ablative (54, i). 

29. Participles denoting hirtli or origin govern the ablative (54, 2, a). 

30. The adjectives dignus, indignus, — with many verbals, as 

contentus, fretus, laetus, praeditus, — govern the abla- 
tive (54, 3, a; 10, a), 

31. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and 

their compounds, govern the ablative (54, 6, d). 

32. Comparatives may take the ablative instead of quam, than, 

33. Degree of Difference is put in the ablative (54, 6, e), 

34. Time at or within which is put in the ablative (55, i). 

35. Ablative Absolute. A Subject and Predicate in the ablative 

are used to define the time or circumstances of an action. 

36. The name of the Town where is in form like the Genitive of 

singular names in us, a, um, otherwise Dative or Ablative ; 
that ichither in the Accusative, and whence in the Ablative. 

So of domusy rus (also humi, belli, militice)^ and maDy names of Islands. 

37. With other words (including names of Countries) Prepositions 

are used to denote where, whither, or whence. 

38. The Infinitive is used like a neuter noun, as the Subject or 

Object, or to complete the action of a verb (57, 8, a). 

39. The Infinitive, with subject-accusative, is regularly used after 

verbs of knowing, thinking, telling, and the like (57, 8, e). 

40. Historical Infinitive. The Infinitive is often used for 

tenses of the indicative in narration (57, 8, h), 

41. The Gerund, governing the case of its verb, or the Gerundive in 

agreement with a noun, has the construction of a verbal noun, 

42. The Supine in um is used after verbs of motion ; the Supine 

in u after adjectives. 

43. The Subjunctive is used independently to denote a wish, com- 

mand, or concession (57, 2). 

44. Relatives or Conjunctions implying purpose or residt, — also 

relative clauses oi characteristic, — require the Subjunctive. 

45. Indirect Questions take a verb in the subjunctive (67, 2). 

46. The Subjunctive present and perfect are used in future condi- 

tions ; the imperfect and pluperfect in those contrary to fact. 

47. Dependent clauses in Indirect Discourse, or in a subjunctive 

construction, take the subjunctive. 

48. In the sequence of Tenses, primary tenses are followed by 

primary, and secondary by secondary (58, 10). 



212 ARRANGEMENT. [76:1,2. 

76. Arrangement. 

In Latin the words do not follow the order of con- 
struction, yet they have a regular arrangement. This, 
however, is constantly modified for emphasis, harmony, 
and clearness. 

1. Normal Order. Regularly the subject stands firsts 
followed by its modifiers ; the verb last, preceded by the words 
which depend upon it : as, 

civis Romanus sum {not sum civis Romanus). 

voluptates blandissimae dominae majores partes animi a vir- 

tute detorquent (Off. ii. lo). 
a, A predicate nominative, as the most important part of the 
predicate, is often placed after the copula : as, 

qui Athenis est mortuus (id. 24). 

haec ad judicandum sunt facillima (id. iii. 6). 

h» The forms of esse meaning there is, &c., often come first 

in the sentence : as, 

sunt quaedam officia quae aliis magis quam aliis debeantur 
(Off. i. 18). 

c, A numeral adjective, or one essential to the meaning of the 
phrase, goes before its noun; one simply descriptive commonly 
follows : as, 

omnes homines decet. 

est viri magni rebus agitatis punire sontes (Off. i. 24). 

omnis actio vacare debet temeritate et neglegentia (id. 29). 

cum aliqua perturbatione (id. i. 38). 

Laelius et sapiens et amicitiae gloria excellens (Lael. i). 

d» A Demonstrative pronoun precedes the noun, Relatives stand 
first in their sentence or clause, Adverbs stand directly before the 
word they qualify. 

- 2. Emphasis. Inversion of the above order gives em- 
phasis. 

a. Particularly the verb comes first and the subject last. This 
makes either or both emphatic : as, 

dicebat idem C. Curio (Off. ii. 17). 

b* Any word closely connected with the preceding sentence 
comes first, and with the following last : as, 

ac duabus iis personis quas supra dixi tertia adjungitur (Off. 
i. 32). 



76:2,3] ARRANGEMENT. 213 

objecit [Cato] ut probrum M. Nobiliori quod is in proyinciam 

poetas duxisset; duxerat autem consul ille in ^toliam ut 

scimus Ennium (Tusc. i. 2). 
maxime perturbantur officia in amicitiis ; quibus et non tri- 

buere quod recte possis, et tribuere quod non sit aequum, 

contra officium est (Off. iii. 10). 

€• A word or phrase inserted between the parts of compound 
tenses becomes emphatic : as, 

ille reprehensus a multis est (N. D. ii. 38). 

d. A modifier of a noun and adjective or participle is often 
placed between them. So in the gerundive construction : as, 

de communi hominum memoria (Tusc. i. 24). 

de uno imperatore contra praedones constituendo (Manil. 17). 

€• Sometimes a noun and its attribute are separated as far as 

possible, so as to include less important words : as, 

objurgationes etiam nonnunquam incidunt necessariae (Off. 

i. 38). 

/. One pair of ideas is set off against another, either in the 

same order or in exactly the opposite order. The latter, which 

is very common, is called chiasmus from the Greek X on account 

of the cross arrangement. Thus, 

rerum copia verborum copiam gignit (De Or. iii. 3, 31). 
pro vita hominis nisi hominis vita reddatur (B. G. vi. 16). 
leges supplicio improbos afficiunt, defendunt ac tuentur bonos 

(Fin. iii. 3). 
non igitur utilitatem amicitia, sed utilitas amicitiam consecuta 

est (Lael. 14). [Here the arrangement of cases only is 

chiastic, that of ideas is regular.] 

gr. Different forms of the same word are often placed together, 
also words from the same root. 

h» A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by 
which the attribute of one pair comes between the parts of the 
other. This is often joined with chiasmus : as, 

et superjecto pavidse natarunt aequore damae (H. Od. i. 2, 11). 
arma nondum expiatis uncta cruoribus (id. ii. i, 5). 

3. Special Hules. 

a. Prepositions regularly precede their nouns (except tenus 
and versus), but they are often placed between a noun and ad- 
jective : as, 

quem ad modum ; quam ob rem ; magno cum metu ; omnibus 
cumcopiis; nulla in re. 



214 ARRANGEMENT. [^6 : 3, 4. 

6. Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence, or clause; 
enim, autem, vero, quoque, never first, but usually second, 
sometimes third if the second word is emphatic ; quidem never 
first, but after the emphatic word : ne . . . quidem include the 
emphatic word or words. 

c. Inquam, inquit, &c., credo, opinor, quaeso, used par- 
enthetically, always follow one or more words. 

d. The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if 
it belongs to no one word, it begins the sentence. 

4. Structure. Latin expresses the relation of words to 
each other by inflection, rather than by position, like modern 
languages. Hence its structure not only admits of great 
variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favor- 
able to that form of sentence which is called a Period. In a 
period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a whole, and 
is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word, which 
usually expresses the main action or motive. 

An English sentence does not often admit this form of 
structure. It was imitated, sometimes with great skill and 
beauty, by many of the early writers of English prose ; but 
its effect is better seen in poetry, in such a passage as the 
following : — 

" High on a throne of royal state, which far 
Outshone the wealth of Ormiis and of Ind, 
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand 
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, 
Satan exalted sat." 

Paradise Lost, Book II. 1-5. 



PART THIRD. 
RULES OF VERSE (PROSODY). 



77. Rhythm. 

1. The Poetry of the ancients was not composed, like 
modern poetry, according to accent and rhyme ; but was 
measured, like music, by the length of the syllables, or vowel 
sounds. The measured flow of verse is called Rhythm. 

2. Each syllable is considered as either long or short, — 
in Quantity or length (not in Quality or sounds as we speak 
of the long or short vowel-sounds in English) ; a long syllable 
being reckoned in length equal to two short ones (see p. 3). 

Remark. — The quantity of radical or stem-syllables — as of 
short a in pater or of long a in mater — can be learned only 
by observation or practice, unless determined by the general rules 
of Quantity. Most of the rules of Prosody are only arbitrary 
rules for the purposes of memory ; the syllables being long or 
short because the ancients pronounced them so. In those cases 
which cannot be conveniently grouped, the quantity is shown by 
the actual practice of the ancients, and is said to be determined by 
the aitthority of the Poets ^ — the principal means we have of learn- 
ing it. In some inscriptions, however, the long vowels are distin- 
guished in various ways by marks over the letters, or by doubling. 

Owing to the practice of Roman poets of borrowing very 
largely from the poetry and mythology of the Greeks, numerous 
Greek words, especially proper names, make an important part 
of Latin poetry. These words are generally employed in accord- 
ance with the Greek and not the Latin laws of quantity. Where 
these vary in any important point, they will be noticed in the rules 
given below. 

78. EuLES OF Quantity. 

1. General Brutes. 

a* A vowel before another vowel is short: as, via, traho. 

Remark. — The aspirate h, as in the example above, is not 
reckoned as a Consonant in the rules of prosody (See § 1, i, Note). 



216 PROSODY. [78: 1,2. 

Exceptions. —1. In the genitive form ius (§ 16, i, &), i is 

long. It is, however, sometimes made short in verse. 

2. In the fifth declension (genitive and dative singular), e is 
long between two vowels : as, diei ; but is short after a consonant, 
as m fidei. 

3. In fio (§ 37, 4), i is long except when followed by er: as, 
fio, fiebam, fiam, fieri, fierem. 

4. In the terminations aius and eius, a and e are long : as in 
Caius, Pompeius ; also in the verb aio, and genitives in ai. 

5. In many Greek proper names, the vowel in Latin represents 
a long vowel or diphthong, and is consequently long : as, Troes, 
Thalia, heroes. But many Greek words are more or less Latin- 
ized in this respect as Academia, chorea. 

h* A Diphthong is long : as, foedus, cm, caelum, deinde. 

Exception. — The preposition prae in compounds is generally 
short before a vowel (as in praeustis, iEn. vii. 624). 

C. A vowel formed by contraction (crasis) is long : as i in nil 
(for nihil) ; curriis (genitive for curriiis). But not where the 
vowels are united by synceresis, as in parietibus (par-yetibus). 

d, A syllable in which a short vowel comes before two con- 
sonants or a double consonant — also before the letter j — is long: 
as, magnus, rex, pejor, et ventis ocior, (but adhuc). But 
if the two consonants are a mute followed by 1 or r, the syllable 
is common, — that is, it may be either long or short in verse : as, 
alacris, patribus, refluo. 

Remakk. — Sometimes the y or v resulting from synseresis 
has the effect of a consonant : as, fluvioriim rex (G. i. 482). 

e* In early Latin s at the end of words was not sounded, and 
hence does not make position with another consonant. In many 
other cases in the comic poets two consonants do not make posi- 
tion, especially in pronouns and particles : as, ille, iste, nempe. 

Remark. — A short syllable, made long under this rule, is said 
to be long by Position : as, in docetne. In docesne, the same 
syllable is long by the general rule (2, A, below). The rules of 
Position do not, in general, apply to Jinal vowels, 

2. Final Syllables* 

a, .Words of one syllable ending in a vowel are long : as, me, 
tu, hi, ne. 

The attached particles -nS, -que, -ve, -ce, pte, and re- (red-) 
are short ; se- is long : as, secedit, exercitumque reducit. 



78: 2.] RULES OP QUANTITY. 217 

bm Nouns of one syllable are long : as, sol, os (oris), bos, vis. 
Exceptions. — cor, fel, mel, 6s (ossis), vir. 

c» Final a in words declined by cases is sho7i, except in the 
ablative singular of the first declension ; in all other words it is 
long: as, ea Stella (nominative), cum ea Stella; frustra, 
voca (imperative), postea, triginta ; also, qua (plural). 

Exceptions. — eia, ita, quia, puta (suppose); and, in late 
use, triginta, &c. 

d. Final e is shoi-t, except (1) in nouns of the fifth declen- 
sion; (2) in adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and 
second declension, with others of like form ; (3) in the impera- 
tive singular of the second conjugation : as, nube, ducite, fide, 
fame (§ 11, 6, 3), quare (qua re), hodie (hoc die), mone, 
monete, saepe, saepissime. 

Exceptions. — bene, male; fere, ferme; also (rarely), cave, 
habe, tace, vale, vide; inferne, superne. 

e. Final i is long : as in turri, fill, audi But it is common in 
mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi; and short in nisi, quasi, ciii (when 
making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives, as Alexi. 

/• Final o is common ; but long in datives and ablatives ; also, 
usually, in verbs. 

Exceptions. — cito, modo, ilico, profecto, dummodo, 
immo, ego, duo, octo. 

g* Final u is long ; final y is short, 

h. Final as, es, os, are long; final is, us, ys are short: as, 
nefas, rupes, servos, honos; hostis, amicus, Tethys. 

Exceptions. — as is short in Greek plural accusatives, as 
lampadas ; and in anas. 

es is short in nours of the third declension (lingual) increasing 
short: as miles (itis), *^bses (idis), — except abies, aries, 
paries, pes ; in the present of esse (es, ades) ; in the preposition 
penes; and in the plural of Greek nouns. 

' OS is short in compos, impos ; in some Greek endings, as 
barbitos ; also o for later u in the second declension, as servos 
(nominative) . 

is in plural cases is long, as in bonis, omnis (accusative 
plural) ; in sis, vis, velis, malis, nolis ; in gratis, foris (prop- 
erly plurals) ; in the second person singular of the fourth conjuga- 
tion, as audis (where it is the stem-vowel) ; and sometimes in 
the forms in -eris (perfect subjunctive), where it was originally 
long. 10 



218 PROSODY. [78 : 2, 3. 

us is long in the genitive singular and noniinative and accusa- 
tive plural of the fourth declension ; and in nouns of the third 
declension having u long in the stem: as virtus (utis), incus 
(udis). 

i. Of other final syllables, those ending in a consonant, except 
c, are short : as, ad, ac, istuc, amat, amatur. 

Exceptions. — donee, fac, neo, sometimes hic ; en, non, 
quin, sin; eras, plus; eur, par. 

3. Penultifnate Syllables. 

a* Increment. A Noun is said to increase^ when in 
any case it has more syllables than in the nominative 
singular. 

Thus Stella is said to increase long in stellarum ; and eorpus 

to increase short in eorporis. 

Note. — The rules of increment are purely arbitrary, as the 
syllables are long or short according to the proper quantity of the 
stem or the formative terminations. The quantity of noun stems 
appears in the schedule of the third declension (§ 11, iv. 3), and that 
of terminations, under the various inflections where it is better to learn 
them. 

A Verb is said to increase, v^hen in any part it has more 
syllables than in the stem (inclusive of the final vowel). 

Thus amo is said to increase long in amatis ; and rego to 
increase short in regitis. 

The final syllable of an inflected word is called the termi- 
nation ; that immediately preceding is called the increment. 

Thus, in the examples given above, the penultimate syllable is 
called the increment. In itineribus, amaveritis, the syllables 
marked are called the first, second, and third increments of the 
noun or verb. 

h. Nouns. In the increment of Nouns and Adjectives, a 
and o are generally long; e, i, u, y, generally short (see list, 
pp. 25-27) : as, aetatis, honoris, servorum ; operis, earminis, 
murmuris, pecudis, ehlamydis. Exceptions are : — 

a: — baccar (aris), hepar (atis), jubar (aris), lar (laris), mas 
(maris), nectar (aris), par (paris), sal (salis), vas (vadis), daps 
(dapis), fax, anthrax (acis). 

6 : — neuters of third declension (except os, oris) ; arbor (oris), 
scrobs (scrobis), ops (opis). 



78: 3-] RULES OF QUANTITY. 219 

e: — increments of fifth declension; heres (edis), lex (legis), 
locuples (etis), merces (edis), plebs (plebis), quies (etis), rex 
(regis), ver (veris). 

i: — most nouns and adjectives in ix: as, felicis, radicis (except 
filix, nix, strix); dis (ditis), glis (gliris), lis (litis), vis (vires), 
Quirites, Samnites. 

u: — forms from nouns in us: as, paludis, telluris, virtutis ; 
also lux (lucis), frux (frugis). 

c. Verbs. * In the increment of Verbs (see Tables of Inflec- 
tion, pp. 66-74), the characteristic vowels are as follows : — 

Of the first conjugation a: as, amare, amatur. 

Of the second conjugation e: as, monere, monetur. 

Of the third conjugation e, i: as, regere, regitur. 

Of the fourth conjugation i: as, audire, auditur. 

Exc. — do and its compounds have a: as, dare, circumdabat. 
In other increments — 

a is always lojig : as, monearis, regamus. 

e is long in tense-endings : as, regebam, audiebar. But it is 
short before ram, rim, ro ; in the future personal endings -beris, 
bere; and sometimes in the perfect -erunt (as steteruntque 
comae, ^n. ii. 774). 

i is long in forms after the analogy of the fourth conjugation : 
as, petivi, lacessitus (in others short : as, monitus) ; also in 
the subjunctive present of esse and velle, and (rarely) in the 
endings -rim.us, -ritis ; but short in the future forms amabitis, &c. 

o is found only in imperatives, and is always long, 

VL is short in sumus, voliimus, quaesumus; in the supine 
and its derivatives it is long : as, soluturus. 

d* Perfects and supines of two syllables lengthen the stem- 
syllable : as, jiivo, juvi, jutum; video, vidi, visum; fugio, 
fugi. 

Exceptions. — bibi, dedi (do), fidi (findo), scidi (scindo), 
steti (sto), stiti (sisto), tuli (fero); — citum (cieo), datum (do), 
itum (eo), litum (lino), quitum (queo), ratum (reor), 
riitum (ruo), satum (sero), situm (sino), statum (sto or 
sisto). In some compounds of sto, statum is found long, as 
prostatum. 

e. Reduplicated perfects shorten both syllables : as, cecidi 
(cado) , didici (disco) , cecini (cano) ; but cecidi from 
caedo, pepedi from pedo. 



220 ^ PROSODY. [78. 79. 

/. Forms from the same Stem retain the original quantity : as, 
amo, amavisti, genus, generis. 

Exceptions. — 1. bos, lar, mas, par, pes, sal, vas — also 
arbos (not arbor) — have a long vowel in the nominative from 
short stems. 

2. Nouns in or, genitive oris, have the vowel shortened before 
the final r: as, honor. (But this shortening is comparatively late, 
so that in Plautus and some inscriptions these nominatives are 
often found long.) 

3. Many verb-forms with original long vowel shorten it before 
final t: as, amet, dioeret (compare amemus), audit, fit. (The 
final syllable in t of the perfect seems to have been originally 
long, but to have been shortened under this rule.) 

g. Forms from the same Root often vary in quantity from 
vowel-increase (see §§ 1, 3, 6i^; 5, 2 ; 44, i, a) \ as, dico (cf. mal- 
edicus), duco (diiois), fido (perfidus), vocis (voco), legio 
(lego). 

h. Compounds retain the quantity of the words which com- 
pose them: as, occido (caio), occido (caedo), iniquus 
(aequus) . Greek words compounded with izpo have o short, as 
propheta, prologus. Some Latin compounds of pro have o 
short, as proficiscor, profiteor. Compounds with ne vary : as, 
nefas, nego, nequeo, nequis, nequam. So dejero and pejero 
from juro. 

[For the quantity of Penultimate Syllables in regular Deriva- 
tives, see § 44, pages 97-99.] 



79. Feet. 

1. The most natural division of musical time is into inter- 
vals, consisting of either two or three equal parts, making 
what is called double or triple time ; but the ancients also 
distinguished five equal parts. These intervals are in music 
called Measures ; in prosody, they are called Feet. 

2. The feet most frequently employed in Latin verse con- 
sist either of two or three syllables ; and may be represented 
by musical notation, as follows : — 



79.] 



FEET. 



221 



1.4 



# # 



\ 
^ ^ f 

# # # 

*J 'J Ij 

^ ^ ^ 



a. Of Two Syllables. 
ft I i*' ^ I -^y^^^^^ C ") • ^s» bonus. 

2. 4- I \ ^ I Trochee or OAoree (" ") : as, cariis. 

3. -g- I L I I Iambus C ") • as, b5nos. 

4. -^ I p P j Spondee (' ") : as, caros. 

6. Of Three Syllables. 
^ J J I Dactyl ( ) : as, detulit 

AnapcBst C ^ ~): as, dominos. 
Amphibrach (^ ): as, amicus. 
Tribrach (^ ^ ^): as, hominis. 
^ r f I Molossus (""""): as, fugerunt (rare). 
Of three syllables, but more than three units of time. 
I I* r 1^ I Amphimacer or Cretic C ^ ')'• as, egerant 
I r r r I BaccMus C ^ ')'- as, regebant. 

c. Of Four Syllables. 

1. Choriambus (trochee, iambus) : as, detiilerant. 

2. Greater Ionic (spondee, pyrrhic) : as, dejecerat. 

3. Lesser Ionic (pyrrhic, spondee) : as, retulissent. 

4. The first, second, third, or fourth Epitritus has a short 
syllable in the first, second, third, or fourth place with three long 
syllables. 

5. The first, second, third, or fourth Pceon has a long syllable 
in the first, second, third, or fourth place with three short syllables. 

6. The Proceleusmatic consists of four short syllables, as 6per- 
ibiis. 

Note. — Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, 
or chant ; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or music, often 
to be accompanied by measured movements or dance. But in read- 
ing, it is not usual, though it is better, to keep the strict measure of 
time ; and often accent is substituted for rhythm, as in English poetry. 



1. 


2 


2. 


2 

4 


3. 


2 

4 


4. 


8 


5. 


i 

Of 


6. 


v^x 


7. 





222 PROSODY. [79: 2-5. 80: i. 

d. In general, feet of the same time can be substituted for 
each other, and two short syllables may stand for a long one. In 
the latter case, the long syllable is said to be resolved. 

Thus the Spondee may take the place of the dactyl or anapaest, 
the Tribrach of the trochee or iambus ; the Proceleusmatic, or a 
Dactyl standing for an anapaest, is the resolution of a spondee. 

When a long syllable having the ictus is resolved, the ictus 
properly belongs to both the short syllables ; but the accent to 
indicate it is placed on the first : as, 

Nunc experiar | sitn^ aceto | tibi cor acr^ in | pectore. 

Bacch. 405. 

3. Arsis and Thesis • The accented syllable of each 

foot is called the Arsis ; and the unaccented part the Thesis. 

Note. — The name Arsis meant originally the raising of the foot 
in beating time ("upward beat^'), and Thesis the putting down 
("downward beaf) ; but these terms came, in later use, to signify 
respectively the raising and depression of the voice. (See Mar. Vict. 
Chap, ix.) 

4. Ictus. Accent, in prosody, is called Ictus, — that is, 
the heat of the foot, as in a dance or march. 

5. Ccesura, The end of a word interrupting a foot is 

called Caesura; and when this coincides with a rhetorical 

break in the sense, it is called the Caesura of the verse. 

Note. — The position of the principal Caesura is important, as 
affecting the melody or rhythm. See description of verses below. 

80. Scanning. 

1. Verse. A single line in poetry, or a series of feet set 
in metrical order, is called a Verse (i.e. a turning back). 

To divide the verse, in reading, into its appropriate feet, 
according to the rules of quantity and versification, is called 
Scanning or Scansion (i.e. climbing, or advance by steps). 

A verse lacking a syllable at the beginning is called Acephalous 
(headless) ; lacking a syllable at the end, it is called Catalectic 
(^stopped) ; complete, Acatalectic. Sometimes a verse appears to 
have a superfluous syllable, and is then called Hypercatalectic. 

The word Verse (versus, a turning) is opposed to Prose (pror- 
sus or TpxO'Meisus, straight aJtead) , 



80: 2-5- 81.] scanning: metre. 223 

2. Elision. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end 
of a word (unless an interjection) — sometimes even at the 
end of a verse — is dropped, when the next word begins with 
a vowel or with h. This is called Synaloepha {smearing) , or 
Elision (bruising) ; or, at the end of a verse, Synapheia 
(binding). 

A final m, with the preceding vowel, is dropped in like manner : 
this is called Ecthlipsis. (Hence a final syllable in m is said to 
have no quantity of its own ; its vowel, in any case, being either 
elided, or else made long by position.) Thus in the verse : — 

Monstr^/^ horrend^/^ informs ingens cui lumen ademptum. 

^n. iii. 658. 

Note. — The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French 
poetry, and is sometimes adopted in English, particularly in the older 
poets: as, 

T' inveigle and invite th' unwary sense. — Comus, 538. 

In early Latin poetry, a syllable ending in s was often elided, even 
before a consonant : as, 

Senio confectu' quiescit. — Ennius (quoted in Cat. M. 5). 

3. hiatus* Elision is sometimes omitted when a word 
ending in a vowel has a special emphasis, or is succeeded by 
a pause. This is called Hiatus (gaping). 

4. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes length- 
ened before a pause : it is then said to be long by Caesura. 
(This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears 
being caused by the retention of an original long quantity.) 
Nostror/^/^ obruimur, oriturque miserrima caedes. — ^n. ii. 411. 

5. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long 
or short (except in some forms of Anapsestic and Ionic verse). 

81. Metre. 

1. Metre is the regular combination of feet in verse, and 
is named from its most frequent and ruling foot : as. Dactylic, 
Iambic, Trochaic, Anapaestic, Choriambic. 



224 PROSODY. [81. 82: i. 

Note. — The ruling foot, so called, always consists of a combina- 
tion of long and short syllables, and is therefore never a pyrrhic or 
spondee. 

The shorter feet (Iambus, Trochee) are counted not by single feet, 
but by pairs (dipodies), so that six Iambi make a trimeter, &c. 

2. A Verse consists of a given number of feet arranged 
metrically. It is named from the number of feet (or pairs) 
it contains, as Hexameter, Trimeter. 

3. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite number of 
verses ranged in a fixed order. It is ofiben called from the 
name of some poet, as Sapphic, Alcaic, Horatian. 



82. Forms of Verse. 

1. Dactylic. The most common forms of dactylic verse 
are the Hexameter and Pentameter. 

a. Hexameter. The Hexameter, caUed also Heroic verse, is 
used in narrative and pastoral poetry. It consists of six feet, of 
which the last is always incomplete (a trochee or spondee) , the 
fifth generally a dactyle, and the rest indifferently dactyles or 
spondees. The fifth foot is rarely a spondee, in which case the 
verse is called spondaic. The principal Caesura falls after the 
arsis (sometimes in the thesis) of the third foot or after the arsis 
of the fourth. In the last case there should be another in the third. 

The introductory verses of the ^neid, divided according to 
the foregoing rules, will be as follows, the principal Caesura in 
each verse being marked by double lines : — 

arma vi|rumque ca|no || Tr6|J3e qui | primus ab | oris 
Italijam fa|to profu|gus || La|vTmaque | venit 
litora, I mult^ ilk | et ter|ris || jac|tatus et | alt5 
VI supe|rum sae|vae || mem6|rem Ju|nonis 6b | Tram ; 
multa qu6|qu^ et bel|lo pas|sus || dum | conderet | urbem, 
infer|retque de|os Lati o, || geniis | unde La|tinum, 
Alba|nique pa|tres, || at|qu^ altae | mcenia | Romae. 

Another form of caesura is seen in the following : — 

Hoc faci|ens vl|vam meli|us || sic | dulcTs a|micis. 

HoR. Sat. I. 4, 135. 



82: 1,2.] FORMS OF VERSE. 225 

The Hexameter verse has been illustrated in English thus : — 

" Strongly it | bears us a | long, || in | swelling and | limitless | billows, 
Nothing be I fore and | nothing be | hind, || but the | sky and the | ocean." 

ft. Pentameter. The Pentameter consists of five feet, and is 
used alternately with the hexameter to form the Elegiac stanza. 
It must be scanned as two half- verses, of which the latter always 
has two dactyls, and each ends in a long syllable or half-foot. 
There is no caesura ; but the first half-verse must always end with 
a word : as, 

ciim subit | illi|us trIs|tTssima | noctis i|mago 

qua mihi | supre|mum || tempus in | urbe fu|it, 
ciim repe|to noc|tem qua | tot mihi | cara re|liqui, 
labitur | ex 6cu|lis || nunc quoque | gutta me|Ts. 
jam prope | lux ade|rat, qua | me dlsjcedere | Caesar 
finibus I extrejmae || jusserat | Aus6ni|ae. 

Ov. Trist. I. El. 3, 1-6. 

The Elegiac Stanza has been illustrated thus : — 

"In the hex|ameter | rises the | fountain's | silvery | column. 
In the pent|ameter | stiU || falling in | melody | back." 

C. Rarely, other dactylic verses, or half-verses, combined with 
trochees or iambs, are used by the lyric poets : viz., — 

Dactylic pentameter : 

arbori|busque c6|mae. — Hor. Od. IV. 7. 

Dactylic tetrameter : 

eras in I gens ite|rabimus | aequor. — Od. I. 7. 

Archilochian heptameter : 

solvitur I acris hi|emps, gra|ta vice | veris | et Fa|v6ni. 

Od. I. 4. 

2. Iambic. The most common forms of Iambic verse 
are the Trimeter (Senarius), and Tetrameter (Septenarius or 
Octonariics). 

a. Trimeter. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of 
dramatic dialogue. It consists of three measures, each containing 
a double iambus. In the first half-measure (odd places), the 
Spondee or its equivalents (anapaest or dactyl) may be regularly 

10* 



226 PROSODY. [82: 2. 

substituted. In the comic poets, these substitutions may be made 
in any foot except the last : as, 

O lucis al|me rector || et | caeli decus ! 

qui alterna cur|ru spatia || fiam|mifero ambiens, 

illustre lae|tis || exseris | terris caput. 

Hero. Fur. 592-94. 

homo ^um: huma|ni || nihil a m^ ali|enum puto. 
vel me m6ne|r^ hoc |{ vel percon|tari puta. 

Heaut. 77, 78. 

Remark. — The choliambic (lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee 
for the last Iambus : as, 

sed non vide|mus manticae | quod in terg<7 est. 

Catull. XXII. 21. 

h. Tetrameter. The Iambic Tetrameter catalectic (Septen- 
arius) consists of seven iambic feet, with the same substitutions 
as the above. It is used in more lively dialogue : as, 

nam Tdcirc^ arces|s6r, nuptias | quod m/adpara|ri sensit. 
quibus quidem quam facijle potiierat | quiesci si hic | quiesset ! 

Andria, 690-91. 

The iambic tetrameter acatalectic (Octonarius) consists of eight 
full iambic feet with the same substitutions. It is also used in 
lively dialogue : as, 

h6cinesthuma|numfact^^aut I Tu'cept^.f* hocinest6f|ficiumpatris ? 
quid illud est 1 pro | deum f idem, | quid est, si hoc non con|- 
tumeliast ? Andria, 236-7. 

C Dimeter. The Iambic Dimeter consists of either four 
(acatalectic) or three and a half {catalectic) iambic feet. The 
former is used in combination with a longer verse, and the latter 
only in choruses : as, 

beatus il|le qui procul | negotiis, 

lit prisca gens | mortalium, 
paterna ru|ra bubus ex|ercet suis, 

solutiis om|ni fenore ; 
nequ^ excita|tur classicd | miles trucT, 

neque horret i|ratum mare ; 

forumque vi|tat, et super ba cTvium 

p6tentio|rum limina. 

HoR. Epod. II. 1-8. 



S2: 3, 4> 5-] forms of verse. 227 

quonam cruenlta Masnas, 

praeceps amo|re saevo, 

rapitur quod im| potent! 

facinus parat | furore ? 

Medea, 850-53. 

3. Trochaic. The most common form of Trochaic verse 
is the Tetrameter catalectic (Septenarius), consisting of seven 
complete feet with an additional syllable.* Strictly, the spon- 
dee and its resolutions can be substituted only in the even 
places ; but the comic poets allow the substitution in every 
foot but the last : as, 

itid^;/2 habet petal s^;/^acvestitum: | tam consimilist | atqu^ego. 
sura, pes, stajtura, tonsus, | oculi, nasum, | vel labra, 
malas, mentum, | barba, collus : | totus ! quid ver|bis opust 1 
81 tergum cilcatricosum, | n/hil hoc similist | simTlius. 

Amphitr. 443-46. 

4. Anapcestic. Anapaestic verses of various lengths are 
found in dramatic poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleus- 
matic may be substituted for the anapaest : as, % 

hie homost | omni^^ homijnum prae|cipu6s 

v61upta|tibiis gau|d/rsqu^ an|tep6tens. 

ita com|moda quae | cupi<^ e|veniunt, 

quod ago | subit, ad secue | sequitur : 

ita gau|dns gau|dium sup|peditat. 

Trin. 1115-19. 

Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric 
poets, in combination with other feet, either as whole lines or 
parts of lines : as, 

non ebur ne|qu^ aureum [dimeter] 
mea reni|det in domo | lacunar. 

HoR. Od, II. 18. 

5. Bacchic. The Bacchius occurs in dramatic poets 
either in verses of two feet (Dimeter) or of four (Tetram- 
eter). The long syllables may be resolved into short ones, 
and the molossus substituted : as, 

multas res | simitu In | meo cor de vorso, 
multum in co|gitando | dolor^w in|dipiscor, 



228 PROSODY. [82:6,7. 

egomet me | coqu^ et malcer^ et de|fetig6 : 
magister | mihi exer|citor ani|mus nunc est, 

Trin. 223-26. 

6, Cretic. Cretic feet (Amphimacer) occur in the same 
manner as the Bacchius, with the same substitutions. The 
last foot is usually incomplete : as, 

amor amijcus mihi | ne fuas | unquam. 
his eg5 I de artibus | gratiam | facio. 
nil eg^ is|t6s moror | faeceos | mores. 

Trin. 267, 293, 297. 

•y. Chorianibic* Choriambic feet are regularly preceded 
by a spondee or trochee, called a basis, and are followed by a 
close, consisting of one or more syllables (see below). 

a. The First or Lesser Asclepiadic verse consists of two 
choriambs preceded by a trochee (in Horace a spondee) , and fol- 
lowed by an* iambus (S, d). 

b. The Second or Greater Asclepiadic has three choriambs 
with the same basis and close (8, h) : as, 

nee fac|t<^ impia fal|lacum hominum | caelicolis | placent. 

Catull. XXX. 4. 

c. The Gly conic consists of one choriambus, with the same 
basis and close (8, e). 

d* The Pherecratic consists of one choriambus, with the same 
basis, and one long syllable for close (8, g) . 

€• The Greater Sapphic consists of two choriambs, preceded 
by a trochaic dipody (epitritus secundus), and followed by a 
bacchius (8, c) : as, 

Saepe trans fi|nem jaciilo | nobilis ex pedito. 

HoR. Od. I. 8. 

/. The Lesser Sapphic consists of one choriambus, with the 
same basis and close (8, &) : as, 

inter auda|ces lupus er|rat agnos. 

HoR. Od. III. 18, 13. 

gr. The Adonic consists of one choriambus, followed by a long 
syllable (8, b). 



82: 8.] FORMS OP VERSE. 229 

h. The Phalsecian consists of a basis, a choriambus, an 
iambus, and bacchius : as, 

diser|tissime Ro|muli ( nepotum 

quot sunt | quotque fue|re Mar|ce TuUi. 

Catul. XLIX. 1, 2. 

i. The lesser Ionic verse consists of pairs of the foot of the 
same name. 

h. Rarely other forms of choriambic verse occur: as, for 
example — 

Aristophanic : 

temperat o|ra frenis. 

HoR. Od. I. 8, 7. 

Tetrameter : 

obstipuit; I pectore nil | sTstere con|sTli quit. 

Adelphi, 613. 

8. Stanzas, The principal forms of lyric stanza, or 
strophe, are the following: — 

a» Alcaic Strophe, consisting of four verses : the first two 
(greater Alcaic) having each a spondee (or trochee), bacchius 
and two dactyls ; the third a spondee, bacchius, and two trochees^ 
and the fourth into two dactyls and two trochees : as, 
jusium ac | tenacem | pr6p6si|ti virum 
non ci|vi^;;^ ardor | prava ju|bentium, 
non vul|tus instan|tis ty|rannT, 

mente qua | tit soli | da ne|qu^ auster. 

HoR. Od. III. 3. 

5. Lesser Sapphic, consisting of three Lesser Sapphic verses, 

and one Adonic (see above, 7,/*, g) : as, 

jam satTs ter|ris nivis at|que dirae 

grandinis mi | sit pater et | rubente 

dextera sa|cras jacula|tus arces 

terriiit urlbem. 

Id. Od. I. 2, 1-4. 

c. Greater Sapphic, consisting of a choriambic dimeter 
(7, 7i), and a greater Sapphic (7, e) : as, 
Lydia die | per omnes 
te deos o|ro Sybarin | cur properas | amando. 

HoR. Od. I. 8. 



230 PROSODY. [82: 8. 

d. Lesser Asclepiadean, consisting of single lines {mono- 
strophon), of lesser asclepiadics (7, a) : as, 

Maece|nas atavis | edite re|gibus 

O et I praesidi^/^ et | dulce decus | meiim. 

% Id. I. 1. 

c. Second Asclepiadean, consisting of one Glyconic (7, e), 
and one lesser Asclepiadic : as, 

Romae | principis ur|bium 
digna|tur suboles | inter ama|biles 

vatum I ponere me | choros ; 
et jam [ dente minus | mordeor Tn|vid6. 

Id. Od. IV. 3, 13-16. 

/. Third Asclepiadean, consisting of three lesser Asclepia- 
dics and one Glyconic : as, 

audis I quo strepitu | janua quo | nemus 
inter | pulchra satum | tecta remu |giat 
ventis I et positas | ut glaciet | nives 
puro I numine Ju|piter. 

Id. Od. III. 10, 5-8. 

gr. Fourth Asclepiadean, consisting of two lesser Asclepia- 
dics, one Pherecratic (7, d), and one Glyconic: as, 

hic bel|lum lacrim5|s^^ hic miseram | famem 
pestemjqu^ a populo et | principe Cae|sar^ in 
Persas | atque Britanjnos 
vestra [ motus aget | prece. 

Id. Od. III. 21, 13-16. 

h. Greater Asclepiadean, consisting of single lines of 
greater asclepiadics : as, 

tu ne I quaesieris | scire nefas | quem mihi quern | tibi. 

Od. I. 11, 18; lY. 10. 

i. The above forms include upwards of a hundred of the Odes 
of Horace. In the eighteen not included, he employs twelve 
different kinds of stanzas, most of which are combinations of the 
verses already given. They may be briefly indicated as fol- 
lows : — 

1. Hexameter, followed by the last four feet of an hexame- 
ter. — Od. I. 7, 28; Epod. 12. 



82: 8.] FORMS OF VERSE. 231 

2. Hexameter, followed by Iambic Dimeter. — Epod. 14, 15. 

3. Iambic Trimeter alone. — Epod. 17. 

4. Hexameter, followed by Iambic Trimeter. — Epod. 16. 

5. Verse of four Lesser Ionics. — Od. III. 12. 

6. Hexameter with Dactylic Penthemim (five half-feet) : 

difiulgere ni|ves rede | unt jam | gramina | campis 
arbori|busque co|mae. — Od. IV. 7. 

7. Iambic Trimeter ; Dactylic Penthemim ; Iambic Dimeter. — 
Epod. 11. 

8. Hexameter; Iambic Dimeter ; Dactylic Penthemim. — Ed. 13. 

9. Archilochian Heptameter ; Iambic Trimeter catalectic : as, 

soMtur I acris hi|ems gra|ta vice | veris | et Fa|voni 
trahunt|que sic|cas ma chinae | cari|nas. — Od. I. 4. 

10. Trochaic Dimeter and Iambic Trimeter, each imperfect : as, 

non I ebur | nequ^ aulreum 
mea | reni|det in | domo | lacu|nar. — Od. II. 18. 

ifc# Other lyric poets use other combinations of the above- 
mentioned verses. 

1. Four Gly conies with one Pherecratic : as, 

Dia|nae sumus In | fide 
puel I IcB et puer/ in | tegri : 
Dia i nam, pueri in | tegri 

puel|laeque cana|mus. — Cattjll. 34. 

2. Sapphics, in series of single lines, closing with an 
Adonic: as, 

An magis diri tremuere Manes 

Herculem ? et visum canis inferorum 

fugit abruptis trepidus catenis ? 

fallimur : laete venit, ecce, vultu, 

quern tulit Poeas ; humerisque tela 

gestat, et notas populis pharetras 

Herculis heres. 

Herc. (Et. 1600-6. 

3. Sapphics followed by Gly conies, of indefinite number 
(Hero. Fur. 830-874, 875-894). 



232 PROSODY. [83. 



83. Early Prosody. 

The prosody of the earlier Latin poets differs in several 
respects from that of the later. 

Note. — Before the language was used in literature, it had become 
very much changed by the loss of final consonants and shortening of 
final syllables under the influence of accent, which was originally 
free in its position, but in Latin became limited to the penult and 
ante-penult. This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar 
and by literature, but shows itself again in the Romance languages. 
In many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the 
early poets. 

a* At the end of words s was only feebly sounded, so that it 
does not make position with a following consonant, and is some- 
times cut off before a vowel. (This usage continues in all poets 
till Cicero's time ; see §§ 1, 2, 6 ; 80, 2, note. 

6. The last syllable of any word of two syllables may be made 
short if the first is short. (This effect remained in a few words 
like puta, cave, vale, vide.) Thus : — 

abest (Cist. ii. i, 12) ; apud test (Trin. 196) ; soror dictast (Enn. 
157) ; bonas (Stich. 99) ; domi deaeque (Pseud, ^y) ; domi (Mil. 194). 

€• The same effect is produced when a short monosyllable pre- 
cedes a long syllable : as, 

id est profecto (Merc. 372), erit et tib/ exoptatum (Mil. loii), 
81 quid^;;^ hercle (Asin. 414), quid est si hoc (Andria, 237). 

d^ In a few isolated words position is often disregarded. Such 

are, ille, iste, inde, unde, nempe, esse (?). (Scholars are not 

yet agreed upon the principle in this irregularity, or its extent.) 

Thus : ■— 

ecquis his in aedibust (Bacch. 581). 

€• In some cases the accent seems to shorten a syllable preced- 
ing it in a word of more than three syllables ; as in senectiiti, 
Syracusae. 

/• At the beginning of a verse, many syllables long by position 
stand for short ones : as, 

idne tu (Pseud. 442) ; estne consimilis (Epid. v. i. 18). 

g* The original long quantity of many final syllables is re- 
tained. Thus : — 



83. 84.] FORMS OF VERSE. 233 

1. Final a of the first declension is often long : as, 

ne epistula quid^w ulla sit in aedibus (Asin. 762). 
Pol hodi^ altera jam bis detonsa certost. 

2. Final a of the neuter plural is sometimes long (though there 
seems no etymological reason for it) : as, 

Nunc et amico prosperab^ et genio meo multa bona faciam 
(Pers. 263). 

3. So also nouns in -or with long stem, either with original r 
or original s : as, 

mode quom dict^ in me ingerebas odium non uxor eram 
(Asin. 927). 

ita m/ in pector^ atque corde facit amor incendium (Merc. 590). 
atque quanto ndx fuisti longior hoc prdxuma (Amph. 548). 

4. So in nouns with vowel lengthened originally by loss of a 
consonant: as, miles, superstites. 

5. So all verb-endings in r and t, where the vowel is elsewhere 
long in inflection : as, 

regredior audisse me (Capt. 1023) ; atqu^ ut qui fueris et qui 
nunc (Capt. 248) ; me ndminat haec (Epid. iv. 1,8); faciat ut sem- 
per (Poen. ii. 42) ; infuscabat, amabo (Cretics, Cist. i. i, 21) ; qui 
amet (Merc. 102 1) ; ut fit in bello capitur alter filius (Capt. 25) ; 
tibi sit ad me revisas (True. ii. 4, 79). 

h* The hiatus is allowed very freely, especially at a pause in the 
sense, or when there is a change of the speaker. (The extent of 
this license is still a question among scholars, but in the present 
state of texts it must sometimes be allowed.) 

84. Reckoning of Time. 

!• Date of Year. The year was dated, in earlier times, 
by the names of the Consuls ; but was afterwards reckoned 
from the building of the City (ab urhe conditd, or anno urbis 
conditce)^ the date of which was assigned by VaiTO to a period 
corresponding with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce 
Roman dates to those of the Christian era, the year of the 
city is to he subtracted from Ib^: e.g. A.u.c. 691 (the year 
of Cicero's consulship) = B.C. 63. 



234 RECKONING OF TIME. [84. 

2. The Homan Year. Before Caesar's reform of the 
Calendar (b.c. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355 days: 
March, May, Qiiin tills (July), and October having each 31 
days, February having 28, and each of the remainder 29 ; 
with an Intercalary month, on alternate years, inserted after 
February 23, at the discretion of the Pontifices. The " Ju- 
lian year," by the reformed calendar, had 365 days, divided 
as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (vi. 
kal. Mart.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month : 
hence the year was called Bissextilis. The month Quintilis 
received the name Julius (July), in honor of Julius Csesar ; 
and Sextilis of Augustus (August), in honor of his successor. 

The Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adop- 
tion of the Gregorian Calendar (a.d. 1582), which omits leap-year 
once in every century. 

3. The Month. Dates, according to the Roman Calen- 
dar, are reckoned as follows : — 

a. The first day of the month was called Kalendae (Calends), 
from calare, to call, — that being the day on which the pontiffs 
publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Calata, which 
they did, originally, from actual observation. 

&, Sixteen days before the Calends, — that is, on the fifteenth 
day of March, May, July, and October, but the thirteenth of the 
other months, — were the Idus (Ides), the day of Full Moon. 

c. Eight days (the ninth by the Roman reckoning) before the 
Ides, — that is, on the seventh day of March, May, July, and Octo- 
ber, but the fifth of the other months, — were the Nonae (^Nones, 
or ninths) . 

d» From the three points thus determined the days of the 
month were reckoned backwards (the point of departure being, 
by Roman custom, counted in the reckoning) , giving the following 
rule for determining the .date : — 

If the given date be Calends, add two to the number of days 
in the month preceding, — if Nones or Ides, add one to that of 
the day on which they fall, — and from the number thus ascer- 
tained subtract the given date: — thus, viii. Kal. Feb. (33 — 8) = 
Jan. 25; — iv. Non. Mar. (8 — i)=Mar. 4; — iv. Id. Sept. 
(14— 4)= Sept. 10. 



84. 85.] 



MEASURES OF VALUE. 



235 



e. The days of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as 
thus ascertained, are given in the following Table : — 





January. 




Febrtiary. 




March. 




April. 


I. 


Kal. Jan. 




KALr Feb. 


Kal. 


Martin 


Kal. 


APRILES 


2. 


IV. Non. Jan. 


IV. Non. 


Feb. 


VI. Non. Mart. 


IV. Non. 


Apr. 


3- 
4- 

5- 


III. „ 

Non. Jan. 


>5 


III. 
prid. 

Non. 


Feb." 


V. 
IV. 

III. 


>> 
)) 
>> 


99 
99 
99 


III. 
prid 

Non 


99 99 

99 99 
Apriles. 


6. 


VIII. Id. Jan. 


VIII. 


Id. 


Feb. 


prid. 

Non. 

VIII. 


>' 


>} 


VIII. 


Id. 


Apr. 


I 


VII. „ , 
VI. „ „ 




VII. 
VI. 






Martin 
Id. Mart. 


VII. 
VI. 


99 
99 


99 

99 


9- 


V. ,, , 




V. 


»> 


»> 


VII. 


>j 




V. 


99 


99 


lO. 


IV. „ , 




IV. 


)> 


j» 


VI. 


>> 




IV. 


99 


99 


11. 

12. 

13- 
14. 


HI. „ „ 
prid. „ „ 
Idus Jan. 
XIX. Kal. Feb. 


III. 
prid. 

Idus 

XVI. 


Feb. 
Kal. Martias 


V. 
IV. 

III. 
prid. 


>> 
>> 

5> 




III. 

prid. 

Idus 

XVIII 


99 99 

9> 99 

Apriles. 
Kal. Maias 


15- 


XVIII. „ 




XV. 


>> 


>> 


Idus 


Martin. 


XVII. 




>9 99 


16. 


XVII. „ 




XIV. 


>> 


>) 


XVII. 


Kal 


Aprilis 


XVI. 




»9 99 


17- 


XVI. „ 




XIII. 


>> 


>> 


XVI- 


» 




XV. 




>9 99 


18. 


XV. „ 




XII. 


}) 


)> 


XV. 


»» 




XIV. 




9 99 


19. 


XIV. „ 




XI. 


>j 


») 


XIV. 


»> 




XIII. 




»9 9f 


20. 


XIII. „ 




X. 


>> 


>) 


XIII. 


)) 




XII. 




99 99 


21. 


XII. „ 




IX. 


j» 


>> 


XII. 


j> 




XI. 




>9 99 


22. 


XI. 




VIII. 


>» 


}) 


XI. 


)) 




X. 




99 99 


23- 


X. „ 




VII. 


9) 


)) 


X. 


j> 




IX. 




99 99 


24 


IX. 




VI. 


>> 


j> 


IX. 


>> 




VIII. 




99 19 


25. 


VIII. „- 




V. 


») 


»» 


VIII. 


» 




VII. 




99 99 


26. 


VII. „ 




IV. 


)> 


j» 


VII. 


>» 




VI. 




99 99 


27. 

28. 
29. 
30- 


VI. 

V. „ 

IV. 

III. „ 




Ill- » „ 

Fpiid. Kal. Mart, 
in leap-year, the 


VI. 
V. 
IV. 

III. 


9) 
J» 
99 

99 




V. 
IV. 

III. 
prid. 




99 99 

99 99 
99 99 
99 99 



VI. Kal. (24th) being prid. „ ,, 
counted twice.] (So May, July, Oct.) 



So June 



Sept., Nov. 



31. prid. „ , 
(So Aug., Dec) 

Note. — Observe that a date before the Julian Reform (b.c. 46) 
is to be found not by the above, but by taking the earher reckoning 
of the number of days in the month. 

85. Measures of Value. 

!• The Money of the Romans was in early times wholly of 
copper, the unit being the As. This was nominally a pound, but 
actually somewhat less, in weight, and was divided into twelve 
unciae. In the third century B.C. the As was reduced by degrees 
to one-twelfth of its original value. At the same time silver coins 
were introduced ; the Denarius = 10 Asses, and the Sestertius or 
sesterce (semis-tertius, or lialf -third, represented by IIS or HS = 
duo et semis) = 2\ Asses. 

2. The Sestertius, being probably introduced at a time when it 
was equal in value to the original as, came to be used as the unit 
of value : hence nummus, coin, was used as equivalent to Sester- 
tius. Afterwards, by the reductions in the standard, four asses 
became equal to a sesterce. Gold was introduced later, the 
aureus being equal to 100 sesterces. 



236 MEASURES OF VALUE. [85. 

The value of these coins is seen in the following Table : — 

24 asses = I sestertius or nummus (hs), value about 4 cents. 
10 asses or 4 sestertii = I denarius . . . ,, ,, 16 ,, 

1000 sestertii = i sestertium „ „ $40.00. 

3. The Sestertium (probably the genitive plural of sestertius) 
was a sum of money, not a coin ; the word is inflected regularly 
as a neuter noun; thus, tria sestertia = $12{).00. When com- 
bined with a numeral adverb, hundreds of thousands (centena 
milid) are to be understood : thus decies sestertium (decies hs) = 
$40,000. In the statement of large sums the noun is often 
omitted : thus sexagies (Rose. Am. 11) signifies, sexagies [centena 
milia] sestertium (6,000,000 sesterces) =$240,000. 

4. In the statement of sums of money in cipher, a line above 
the number indicates thousands ; lines at the sides also, hundred- 
thousands. Thus HS. DC. = 600 sestoiiii ; — hs. dc. = 600,000 ses- 
tertii, or 600 sestertia; — hs. 1dc| =60,000,000 sestertii. 

5. Measures of Length. 

12 uncise (inches) = i Roman Foot (pes, 11.65 English inches), 
li Feet = i Cubit. — 2^ Feet= i Degree or Step (gradus). 
5 Feet = I Pace (passus)* — 1000 Paces {mille ;passuu7n) = i Mile. 

The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet. The Ju- 
gerum, or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman) 
feet long and 120 broad ; a little less than f of an English acre, 

6. Measures of Weight. 

12 unciae {ounces) =■ oxvo. pound {libra, about | lb. avoirdupois). 
For fractional parts of the pound, see Lexicon, art. as. The 
Talent was a Greek weight = 60 lihrce, 

7. Measures of Capacity. 

12 cjathi = I sextarius (nearly a pint). 
16 sextarii = I modius (peck). 

6 sextarii = i congius (3 quarts, liquid measure). 

8 congii = i amphora (6 gallons). 



APPEl^DIX 



Latin was originally the language of the plain of Latium, lying 
south of the Tiber, the first territory occupied and governed by the 
Eomans. This language, together with the G-reek, Sanskrit, Zend 
(old Persian), the Sclavonic and Teutonic families, and the Celtic, 
are shown by comparative philology to be offshoots of a common 
stock, a language once spoken by a people somewhere in the in- 
terior of Asia, whence the different branches, by successive migra- 
tions, peopled Europe and Southern Asia. 

The name Indo-European (or Aryan) is given to the whole 
group of languages, as well as to the original language from which 
the branches sprang. By an extended comparison of the cor- 
responding roots, stems, and forms, as they appear in the different 
branches, the original (" Indo-European ") root, stem, or form can 
in very many cases be determined; and this is used as a model, 
or type, to which the variations may be referred. A few of these 
forms are given in the grammar for comparison (see, especially, 
p. 59). A few are here added for further illustration : 

1. Case Forms (Stem vak, mice). 





Indo-Eur. 


Sanskr. 


Greek. 


Latin. 


Sing. Nom. 


■ vaks 


vaks 


6xp 


vox 


Gen. 


vakas 


vachas 


OTTOS 


vocis 


Dat. 


vakai 


vache 


dirt 


voci 


Ace. 


vUkam 


vacham 


6ira 


vocem 


Abl. 


vakat 


vachas 


(gen. or dat.) 


voce(d) 


Loo. 


vaki 


vachi 


(dat.) 


(dat.) 


Instr. 


vaka 


vacha 


(dat.) 


(abl.) 


Plfe. Nom. 


vakas 


vachas 


^Tres 


voces 


Gen. 


vakam 


vacham 


dirGJv 


ocum 


Dat. 


vakhhyams 


vagbhyas 


dx/yi 


vocibus 


Ace. 


vakams 


vachas 


^TTttS 


voces 


Abl. 


vakbhyams 


(as dat.) 


(gen. or dat.) 


vocibus 


Loc. 


vaksvas 


vaksu 


(dat.) 




Instr. 


vakbhis 


vagbhis 


(dat.) 


(abl.) 



(For Verb-Forms, see p. 59.) 



38 




APPENDIX. 








2. Cardinal Numbers. 






Indo-Eur. 


Sanskr. 


Greek. 


Latin. 


1 


? 


[eka] 


[eh] 


[unus] 


2 


dva 


dva 


dijo 


duo 


3 


tri 


tri 


rpeis 


tres 


4 


kvatvar 


chatur 


Mffcrapes] 


quattuor 


5 


kvankva 


panchan irevTe 


quinqiie 


6 


ksvaks 


shash 


^^ 


sex 


7 


saptam 


saptan 


iTTTd 


septem 


8 


aktam 


ashtun 


OKTU) 


octo 


9 


navam 


navan 


ivpea 


novem 


10 


dakam 


dasan 


d^Ka 


decern 


12 


dvadakam 


dva-dasan dcbdcKa 


duodecim 


13 


tridakam 


trayo-dasan • TpiaKaideKa 


tredecim 


20 


dvidakanta vinsati 


etKoai 


viginti 


30 


tridakanta 


trinsati 


rpiaKOPTa 


triginta 


100 


kantam 


satam 


eKarbv 


centum 




3. 


Familiar and Household Words. 








Indo-Eur. 


Sanskr. Greek. 


Latin. 


Father, 




patar- 


pitri- iraTrjp 


pater 


Mother, 




matar- 


matri- f^'^Trjp 


mater 


Father- 


in-law. 


evakura- 


9va9iira- €Kvp6s 


socer 


Daught 


er -in-law. 


snusha- 


snusha- vvos 


nurus 


Brothel 




bhratar- 


bhratri- (ppdrrjp * 


frater 


Sister. 




svasar- (?) 


svasar- [d5eX0^] 


soror 


Master, 




pati- 


pati- TToo-ts 


potis 


House, 




dama- 


dama- do/uLos 


domus 


Seat, 




sadas- 


sadas- e5os 


sedes 


Year, 




vatas- 


vatsa- ^Tos 


vetus (old) 


Field. 




agra- 


ajra- dyp6s 


ager 


Ox, Cow. 


gau- 


go- ^ovs 


bos 


Sheep {Ewe). 


avi- 


avi- 6'ls 


ovis 


Swine { 


Sow). 


su- 


sti- ds, (Tijs 


sus 


Yoke. 




yiiga- 


yuga- Mov 


jugum 


Wagon 


, 


rata- 


rata- [a/m^a] 


rota (wheel) 


Middle 




madhya- 


madhya- /mecros 


medius 


Sweet, 




svadu- 


svadu- 7]8vs 


suavis 



The immigrants who peopled the Italian peninsula also divided 
into several branches, and the language of each branch had its own 
development, until they were finally crowded out by the dominant 
Latin. Fragments of some of these dialects have been preserved, 
in monumental remains, or as cited by Koman antiquarians, though 
no literature now exists in them ; and other fragments were prob- 
ably incorporated in that popular or rustic dialect which formed 
the basis of the modern Italian. The most important of these 
ancient languages of Italy — not including Etruscan, which was 



* Clansman. 



APPENDIX. 



239 



of uncertain origin — were the Oscan of- Campania, and the Um- 
brian of the northern districts. Some of their forms as compared 
with the Latin may be seen in the following : 



Latin. 


Oscan. 


Umbrian. 


Latin. 


Oscan. 


Umbrian. 


accinere 




arkane 


neque 


nep 




alteri (loc.) 


alttrei 




per 


perum 




argento 


aragetud 




portet 




portaia 


avibus 


- 


aveis 


quadrupedibus 


peturpursus 


censor 


censtur 




quatuor 


petora 


petur 


censebit 


censazet 




quinque 


pomtis 




contra, F. 


contrud,> 


r. 


qui, quis 


pis 


pis 


corniceni 




curnaco 


quid 


pid 




dextra 




destru 


quod 


pod 


pod 


dicere 


deicum (cf. venum-do) 


cui 


piei 




dixerit 


dicust 




quom 




pone, pune 


duodecim 




desenduf 


rectori 


regaturei 




extra 


ehtrad 




siquis 




svepis 


facito 


factud 




stet 


stain(stai®et) 


fecerit 


fefacust 




subvoco 




subocau 


fertote 




fertnta 


sum 


sum 




fratribus 




fratrus 


est 


i«st 




ibi 


ip 




sit 


set 




imperator 


embratur 




fuerit 


fust 


fust 


inter 


anter 


anter 


fuerunt 


fufans 




liceto 


hcitud 




fuat 


fuid 


fuia 


magistro 




mestni 


tertium 




tertim 


medius 




mefa 


ubi 


puf 




mugiatur 




niugatu 


uterque 




puturus pid 


multare 


moltaum 




utrique 


puterei® 


putrespe 



Fragments of early Latin are preserved in inscriptions dating 
back to the third century before the Christian era ; and some Laws 
are attributed to a much earlier date, — to Romulus (b. c. 750) and 
Numa (b. c. 700) ; and especially to the Decemvirs (Twelve Tables, 
B. c. 450) ; but m their present form no authentic dates can be as- 
signed to them. Some of these are usually given in a supplement 
to the Lexicon. (See also Cic. de Legibus, especially ii. 8, iii. 3, 4.) 

Latin did not exist as a literary language, in any compositions 
known to us, until about b. c. 200. At that time it was already 
strongly influenced by the writings of the Greeks, which were the 
chief objects of literary study and admiration. The most popular 
plays, those of Plautus and Terence, were simply translations from 
Greek, introducing freely, however, the popular dialect and the 
slang of the Roman streets. As illustrations of life and manners 
they belong as much to Athens as to Rome. And the natural 
growth of a genuine Roman literature seems to have been thus 



240 APPENDIX. 

very considerably checked or suppressed. Orations, rhetorical 
works, letters, and histories, — dealing with the practical aiffairs 
and passions of politics, — seem to be nearly all that sprang direct 
from the native soil. The Latin poets of the Empire were mostly 
court-poets, writing for a cultivated and luxurious class; satires and 
epistles alone keep the flavor of Koman manners, and exhibit the 
familiar features of Italian life. 

In its use since the classic period, Latin is known chiefly as 
the language of the Civil Code, which gave the law to a large part 
of Europe ; as the language of historians, diplomatists, and philos- 
ophers during the Middle Age, and in some countries to a much 
later period ; as the official language of the Church and Court of 
Eome, down to the present day ; as, until recently, the common 
language of scholars, so as still to be the ordinary channel of com- 
munication among many learned classes and societies ; and as the 
universal language of Science, especially of the descriptive sciences, 
so that many hundreds of Latin terms, or derivative forms, must be 
known familiarly to any one who would have a clear knowledge of 
the facts of the natural world, or be able to recount them intelli- 
gibly to men of science. In some' of these uses it may still be 
regarded as a living language ; while, conventionally, it retains its 
place as the foundation of a liberal education. 

During the classical period of the language, Latin existed not 
only in its literary or urban form, but in several local dialects, 
known by the collective name of lingua rustica, far simpler in the 
forms of inflection than the classic Latin. This, it is probable, was 
the basis of modern Italian, which has preserved many of the 
ancient words without aspirate or case-inflection, as orto (Jiortus), 
gente (gens). In the colonies longest occupied by the Eomans, 
Latin — often in its ruder and more popular form — grew into the 
language of the common people. Hence the modern languages 
called ^'Romance" or ''Romanic"; viz., Italian, Spanish, Portu- 
guese, and French, together with the Catalan of Northeastern 
Spain, the Provencal or Troubadour language of the South of 
Prance, the " Rouman " or Walachian of the lower Danube (Rou- 
mania), and the "Roumansch" of some districts of Switzerland. 

A comparison of words in several of these tongues with Latin 
will serve to illustrate that process of phonetic decay to which 
reference has been made in the body of this Grammar, as well as 



APPENDIX. 



241 



the degree in which the substance of the language has remained 
unchanged. Thus, in the verb to he the general tense-system has 
been preserved from the Latin in all these languages, together 
vrith both of the stems on v^hich it is built, and the personal 
endings, somewhat abraded, which can be traced throughout. The 
following exhibit the verb-forms with considerably less alteration 
than is found in the other Eomanic tongues : — 



Latin. 


Italian. 


Spanish. 


Portuguese. 


French. 


Proven^aL 


sum 


sono 


soy 


s6u 


siiis 


son (sui) 


es 


sei 


eres 


es 


es 


ses (est) 


est 


e 


es 


he 


est 


es (ez) 


Slim us 


siamo 


somos 


somos 


sommes 


sem (em) 


estis 


siete 


sois 


sois 


etes 


etz (es) 


sunt 


sono 


son 


sao 


sont 


sont (son) 


eram 


era 


era 


era 


etais 


era 


eras 


eri 


eras 


eras 


etais 


eras 


erat 


era 


era 


era 


etait 


era 


eramus 


eravamo 


eramos 


eramos 


etions 


eram 


eratis 


eravate 


erais 


ereis 


etiez 


eratz 


erant 


erano 


eran 


erao 


etaient 


eran 


fui 


fui 


fui 


fui 


fus 


fui 


fuisti 


fosti 


fuiste 


foste 


fus 


fust 


fuit 


fu 


fue 


f6i 


fut 


fo (fon) 


fuimus 


film mo 


fuimos 


fomos 


fumes 


fom 


fuistis 


foste 


fuisteis 


fostos 


fates 


fotz 


fuerunt 


fiirono 


fueron 


forao 


furent 


foren 


sim 


sia 


sea 


seja 


sois 


sia 


sis 


sii 


seas 


sejas 


sois 


sias 


sit 


sia 


sea 


seja 


soit 


sia 


simus 


siamo 


seamos 


sejamos 


soyons 


siam 


sitis 


siate 


seals 


sejais 


soyez 


siatz 


sint 


siano 


sean 


sejao 


soient 


sian 


fuissem 


fossi 


fuese 


fosse 


fusse 


fos 


fuisses 


fossi 


fueses 


fosses 


fusses 


fosses 


fuisset 


fosse 


fuese 


fosse 


fut 


fossa (fos) 


fuissemus 


fossimo 


fuesemos 


fossemos 


fussions 


fossem 


fuissetis 


foste 


fueseis 


fOsseis 


fussiez 


fossetz 


fuissent 


fossero 


fuesen 


fossem 


fussent 


fossen 


es 


sii 


se 


sg 


sois 


sias 


esto 


sia 


sea 


seja 


soit 


sia 


este 


siate 


sed 


sede 


soyez 


siatz 


sunto 


siano 


sean 


sejao 


soient 


sian 


esse 


essere 


ser 


ser 


etre 


esser 


[sens] 


essendo 


siendo 


sendo 


etant 


essent 



PRINCIPAL ROMAN WRITERS. 

B.C. 

T. Maccius Plautus, Comedies 254-184 

C^ Ennius, A?inals, Satires, d:c. (Fragments) . . . 239-169 

M. Porcius Cato, Husbandry, Antiquities, d^c . . . 234-149 

M. Pacuvius, Tragedies (Fragments) 220-130 

P. Terentius Afer (Terence), Comedies 195-159 

L. Attius, Tragedies (Fragments) 170-75 

C. Lucilius, Satires (Fragments) 148-103 

M. Terentius Varro, Husbandry, Antiquities, &c. . . 116-28 

M. Tullius Cicero, Oratio?is, Letters, Dialogues . . 106-43 

C. Julius Csesar, Commentaries ico-44 

T. Lucretius Carus, Poem "De Rerum Natura " . . 95-52 

C. Valerius Catullus, Miscella?icous Poems .... S7-47 

CJ. Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), Histories .... 8^-34 
Cornelius Nepos, Lives of Famous Commanders . . 

\ Vergilius Maro, Eclogues, Georgics, yEneid . . 70-19 

^ Horatius Flaccus, Satires, Odes, Epistles ... 65-8 

.Vlbius Tibullus, Elegies 54-iS 

Sex. Aurelius Propertius, Elegies 5^-15 

T. Livius Patavinus (Livy), Roman History 59-A. D. 17 

P. Ovidius Naso (Ovid), Metamorphoses, Fasti, <kc. . . . 43-A. D. 18 

Phaedrus, Fables 

Valerius Maximus, Anecdotes, &c -31 

C. Velleius Paterculus, Roi7ia7i History 19-31 

Pomponius Mela, Husbaiidry & Geography .... -50 

A. Persius Flaccus, Satires A.D. 34-62 

L. Annseus Seneca, Philos. Letters, &c. ; Tragedies . 65 

M. Annseus Lucanus, Historical Poem "Pharsalia" . 39-65 

Q(^C\xx\Xw's>^\xi\x^, History of Alexaiider ..... ? 

C. Plinius Secundus (Plinj), Nat. Hist., d:c. . . . 23-79 

C. Valerius Flaccus, ^(?/'t>/(£: /^<?^;/2, "Argon autica" . -88 
P. Papinius Statius, Heroic Poems, " Thebais," &c. . 61-96 
'C. Silius Italicus, i7(g/'^/c /^^^w, "Punica" .... 25-ico 

D. Junius Juvenalis (Juvenal), Satires 40-120 

L. Annseus Florus, Hist. Abridgment -120 

M. Valerius Martialis (Martial), Epigrams .... 43-104 

M. Fabius Quintilianus, /?//^/^;'/c . ■ 40-118 

C. Cornelius Tacitus, A?i?zals, History, &c 60-118 

C. Plinius Csecilius Secundus (Pliny Junior) Letters 61-115 

C. Suetonius Tranquillus, Biographies 70- 

Apuleius, P/5//6>5. Writings, " Metamorphoses " &c. . 110- 

A. Gellius, J//5cg//a/22V5, " Noctes Atticse " . . . . about -180 

t Q^ Septimius Florens Tertullianus, Apologist . . 160-240 

t M. Minucius Felix, Apol. Dialogue ...... about -250 

fFirmianus Lactantius, Theology 250-325 

■\T>.^2igr\yx^ K.\x^ox\\\x^, Miscellaneous Poems . . . -^QO 

Ammianus Marcellinus, Ronian History -400 

Claudius Claudianus, Poems, Panegyrics, <S:c. . . . -410 

t Aurelius Prudentius Clemens, Christian Poe^ns . . 348-410 

t Aurelius Augustinus, Confessions, Discourses, <&c. , 354-430 

Anicius Manlius Boethius, Philos. Dialogues . . . 470-520 

t Christian writers. 



INDEX, 



INDEX, 



Note. —The Figures refer to pages; the Letters to tlnQ upper, mkldte, or 
lower part of the page. 



Ab, preposition 88 c, with agent, after 
passives 138 b. 

Abbreviations of prsenomens 32. 

Ablative 12 a, ending 13 b, in -ABUS 
14 c, in I 18 b, 35 c, 37 c, in is (3d 
decl. ) 21 b, in -ubus 28 c, neuter used 
adverbially 84 c, eo and quo 49 c, 
after prepositions 88, with ab or de 
for partitive gen. 116 b, of crime or 
punishment 119 c, with dat. after 
verbs 122 b, with pro for defence &c. 
130 c, syntax of 134-143, of separa- 
tion 135 a, of place from which 135 c, 
of source 136 c, of material 137 b, 
of cause 137 b, with adjectives &c. 
137 c, of agent 138 b, after compara- 
tives 138 c, after plus &c. 139 a, of 
means 139 b, of accompaniment 139 
c, after uxor &c. 140 b, of degree of 
difference 140 c, of quality 141 a, of 
manner 141 a, of price 141 b, of spec- 
ification 142 a, location 142 b, 143 b, 
absolute 142 c, used adverbially 143 
a, of time 143 b, time how long 143 c, 
of distance 144 a, place from which 

144 c, for locative 145 a, place where 

145 c, way by tv^nch 145 c, with prep- 
ositions 145 a, with ab for agent 147 
c, distinguished from abl. of instru- 
ment 148 a. 

absque 89 a. 

Abstract nouns in plur. 30 c, with 
neut. adj. 106 a, expressed by neut. 
adj. 107 c. 

AC see atque; ac si with subj. 174 c. 

Accent 7 c. 

Accompaniment abl. of 139 c. 

Accusative 11 c, endings 13 a, in im 
18 b, 35 c, in is 19 a, 37 c, neut. used 
as adv. 83 c (gen. 85 a), after prep. 
88, 145 a, with verbs of remembering 
&c. 119 a, with irapers. 120, 132 b, 
with dat. 123 c, 124 c, after com- 
pounds of preps. 125 c, after ad for 
dat. 128 c, after adj. 129 c, construe- . 
tion of 131, as div. obj. 131 a, with 
verbs of feeling 131 b, cognate 131 c, 
verbs of taste &c. 131 c, after com- 
pounds 132 a, constructive 132 a, 
two ace. 132 b, adverbial 133 a, syn- 
ecdochical 133 b, in exclamations 
133 c, as subj . of infin. 133 c, of dura- 
tion 133 c, 143 c, of space 133 c, 144 a, 



of distance 133 c, 144 a, place whither 
144 c, in ind. disc. 188 a, of anticipa- 
tion 190 c, in subst. clauses 194 a, 
after passives 194 b, after verbs of 
promising «&c. 195 a. 

Action, nouns of 96 b, 97 c, governing 
genitive 117 a. 

AD 88 b, following noun 148 a. 

Adjectives 33, of two termin. 35 a, of 
one termin. 36 a, of common gender 
38 a, used as adv. 38 a, deriv. of 96 
b, 98 a, compound 100 b, modifying 
102 a, adj. phrase 102 b, agreement 
of 105, in appos. 105 b, in agr. with 
appos. 106 b, with part. 106 c, used 
as nouns 106 c, neuter 107 b, used 
for gen. 108 a, 114 a, qualifying act 
108 c, for obj. gen. 108 b, in rel. 
clause 111 b, neut. used partitively 
115 c, relat. gov. gen. 117 c, of feel- 
ing with ANiMi 118 b. gov. gen. and 
dat. 118 c, 129 a, followed by dat. or 
ace. with AD 128 c, dat. or ace. 129 b, 
of want with abl. 136 a, dignus &c. 
with abl. 137 c. 

ADMODUM 41 a. 

Adverbs 9 c, 84, compar. of 40 b, com- 
pound 100 c, numeral 43 c, correl. 
49 c, classif. of 85, 86, modifying 102 
a, phrase 102 b, qualifying noun 
107 b, rel. or dem. equiv. to pron. 
Ill c, partitive use 116 a, formed 
with TEN us 147 a, used as prepos. 
147 b, followed by quam 147 c. 

Adverbial phrase 102 b, accus. 133 b, 
in abl. absolute 143 a. 

Adversative conjunctions 94 a. 

Ad VERS us 89 b, as adverb 147 b. 

Affix, close and open 96. 

Agency, nouns of 96 b, 97 c, govern- 
ing gen. 117 a. 

Agent 138 b, abl. with ab 147 c. 

Agnomen 32 b. 

Agreement 103 b, nouns in for part, 
gen. 116 c. 

Aio 81 c. 

Alcaic strophe, 

ALIENUS with DOMUS 145 b. 

ALI- (stem of ALIUS) 48 b. 

ALIUS infl. of 34 c, with abl. 139 b. 

Alphabet, classification of 1 b. 

AM BO, inti. 42 b. 

AMPLius, constr. of 139 a. 



246 



INDEX. 



AN, ANNE, ANNON, interrog. parti- 
cles 200 c. 

ANTE 89 b, om. in dates 146 c, as adv. 
147 b, followed by quam 147 c, an- 
te DIEM 140 c. 

Antecedent of relative 110 a, implied 

110 b, in both clauses 110 c, omitted 

111 a. 
Antei)enult 7 c. 

ANTEQUAM witli rclat. clauses 179 c. 
Aorist 53 b. 
APAGE 82 1). 

Apodosis 166 a, c. 

Appositive 102 a, 104 a, adjectives 

105 b, neut. adj. 107 c, in periphr. 

form 112 a, expr. by gen. 115 a, with 

NOMEN EST, 127 a, after verbs of 

naming 132 c. 
APUD 89 c. 

APTUS followed bvrel. andsubj. 185 c. 
Arsis and Thesis 222 b. 
AS, the unit of value 235 c. 
Asclepiadic verse 230. 
Asking, verbs of, with two ace. 132 c. 
Aspirate 1 c, 115 c. 
Assimilation of consonants 36, in 

prepos. 4 a. 
AT 95 b, AT VERO 96 a. 
ATQUE 95 a. 

Attraction of Relative 110. 
Attributive adj. 105 b. 
AtJDEO 77 a. 
AUSIM 77 b. 

AUT 95 b, in questions 201 c. 
AUTEM 95 b, position, 96 a. 
AVE 82 b. 



Belli (locative) 145 a. 
Birth, place of in abl. 137 a. 
BOS, decl. of 22 b, c. 



C and G 2 a, for qjj 2 b, interchanged 
with T 4 b, pronunciation of 6 a. 

Caesura 222 b. 

Calendar, Roman 235 a. 

Cardinal numbers 41b, declined 42 b. 

CARO, decl. 25 c. 

Cases 11 b, endings 13 b, forms (see 
declensions) construction of 113 b. 

Catalectic verse. 

CAUSA with gen. 115 b. 138 a . 

Causal conjunctions 94 b, clauses 102 c, 
with subjunct. 181 b. 

Causative verbs 99 a. 

Cause, with subjunctive 185b. 

CAVE in prohibitions 192 c. 

-CE enclitic 45 b. 

CELO with two accusatives 133 a. 

CEDO (defective) 82 b. 

CERTE and CERTO 87 b. 

CEU with subjunct. 174 c. 

Choliambic verse 226 b. 

Choriambic verse 228 b. 

CIRCA, CIRCITER, CIRCUM, CIS 89 C. 

CIRCITER as adv. 147 b. 

Cities, gender of 10 c. 

ciTRA 89 c, following noun 148 a. 



CLAM as prepos. 147 b. 

Clauses 102 b, adv. use 84 b, with 
neut. in appos. 107 c, limited by 
gen. 114 b, with impersonals 120 a, 
dependent, in seq. of tenses 162 a. 

Close syllables 5 c, afiixes 9 b, in com- 
pounds 65 a. 

Commands in subjunct. 149 c, impera- 
tive 51 b, 152 b. 

CCEPi 81b. 

Cognomen 32 b. 

Collective nouns with plur. verbs 112 c. 

Combinations of consonants 5 a, 192 c. 

Commands, indirect 191 c. 

Common gender 11 a, of adj. 38 a. 

Comparative conjunctions 94 b. 

Comparatives, declensions 37 a, use 
40 c, partitive 115 c. 

Comparison, forms of 38 b, irregular 
39 b, defective 39 c, of adverbs 40 b, 
in appos. 104 b, of qualities, 108 c. 

Complementary ace. 104 b, intin. 154 b. 

Complete action, tenses of 53 Cj 159 c, 
favorite use 170 c. 

Compounds of verbs 65 a, of facio 
80 a, of Fio 81 c, of NON 86 a, stems 
96 b, words 100 a, of preps, govern- 
ing ace. 132 a, with, two ace. 132 c, 
with abl. 135 b, quantity of 220 b. 

Conditional conjunctions 94 b, clauses 
102 b, 103 a, 166, classitied 167 c. 

Conditions, partic. and gen. 167, pres- 
ent and past 168, future 170 a, gen- 
eral 171 c, implied 172 b, omitted 
173 b, in indirect discourse 89 b. 

Conjugation 9b, 60, the four regular 
66-75. 

Conjunctions 92, correlative 49 c, class- 

. es of 93. 

Connectives 103 b. 

Consecutive clauses 102 c, 103 a, sub- 
junctive 183 c. 

Consonants 1 b, stems 12 c, 36 a. 

Constructio prcegnans 132 a. 

CONTRA 90 a, as adv. 147 b, following 
noun 148 a. 

Contraction 3 a, shown by circumflex, 
7 a. 

Co-ordinate clause 102 c. 

Correlatives 49. 

Countries, gender of 10 c. 

Crime, expressed by ablative 119 c. 

CUM {prep. ) 90 a, as enclitic 44 c, 47 c. 

CUM (conj.) 95 c, with subjunct. 176 c, 
178 c, as indef. relat. 177 a, causal 
w. subj. 180 c, 181 c, like quod with 
indie. 180 c, cum tum with indie. 
181 a, causal with indicative 181, for 
pres. pass. part. 202 c. 



Dactylic Verse 224 b. 

Dative 11 c, ending 13 b, in -abus 14 c, 
in IS (3d decl.) 21 b, -UBUS 28c, in i 
34 b, construction 121, with trans- 
itives 121 c, after verbs of motion 
(poet.) 122b. with abl. id., after in- 
trans. 122c, 123, with ace. 123c, 124c, 
after impersonals 124 b, after com- 



INDEX. 



247 



pounds 125, 126, in poetry 126 c, of 
possession id., after comp. of esse 
127 a, with xomen est id., of 
agency 127 b, after participles and 
passives id., of service 128 a, of 
nearness 128 b, after nouns 129 b, of 
advantage 129 c, used for gen. 130 a, 
for direction id., of volens &c. 130 b, 
ethical id., with intinitive of verbs 
goveridng dative 155 b. 

Declaratory sentence 101. 

Declension 12 c, general rules 13 a. 

Defective nouns, 29, 30, adj. 37, tenses 
50 b, verbs 81. 

-DEM, enclitic 45 b. 

Denominative verbs 99 a, c. 

Deponents 75 c, semi-deponents 77 a. 

Derivation 96-100. 

Derivative verbs 77 b, 99. 

DiGXUS with abl. 137 c, with qui and 
subj. 185 c. 

Diphthongs 1 b, 6 a, long 7 a. 

Diptotes 31 a. 

Distance (ace. ) 133 c (ace. or abl. ) 144 a. 

Distributives 43 u. 

DOMi (loc.) 145 a. 

DONEC with subjunctive 180b. 

Doubtful gender 11 a. 

Dual 42 b. 

DUBITO 184 b, 198 b, 200 c. 

DUM with i)res. 158 a, id. followed by 
secondary tenses 163 c, (provided) 
with subj. 175c, 180b, (until) with 
subj. 180 b, for pass. part. 202c. 

DUMMODO with subj. 175c, 180b. 



Early forms, alphabet 2, prosody. 

EDO 80 a. 

EGEO with gen. 120 c, 136 b. 

Ellipsis 101c. 

Emphasis as dependent on arrange- 
ment 212 c. 

Enclitics, intensive 45 a, cum 44 c. 

EXIM 95 b, 96 a. 

Epicene nouns 11 a. 

Epistolary tenses 161 b. 

ESCIT, 59 c. 

ESSE 57 c, comparative forms 59 c, 
compounds 60, omitted 113 b, com- 
pounds with dative 127 a. 

ET . . . ET 95 c. 

ETiAM 87 a, in answers 201 c. 

ETSi 175 b. 

Etymology 1-100. 

Euphonic changes 2 c, 3 b. 

EX 90 c, following noun 148 a, com- 
pounds of, with dative 126 a. 

Exclamations (accus.) 133 c. 

Exclamatory sentences 101 b, accus- 
ative with infinitive 156 b. 



Facio 80 c, compounds 100 c, facio ut 

in periphr. 198 a. 
FARi 82 a. 
Feeling, nouns of, with genitive 117 a, 

verbs of, with ace. 131 b. 



Feminine forms lacking masc. .34 b, 
abl. in o 34 b, in a of adj. of 3d 
decl. 37 a, abl. as adv. 85 a. 

Festivals, names of, x>lural 30 c. 

FERO 78 b. 

FIDO 77 a. 

Filling, verbs of, with abl. or genitive 
140 b. 

Final clauses 102 c, 103 a, 182, 195. 

Finite verb 113 a. 

Fio 80 c, defective comp. 82 c. 

Foot (in prosody) 220 e, classif. 221. 

FORE UT for fut. inf. i)ass. 55c, 165c. 

FORis (loc. form) 145a. 

Frequentative verbs 77 c, 99 c. 

FRUOR and FUNGOR with abl. 140 b. 

Future tense 53 a, endings 54 c, 61 b, c, 
of subj. 83 c, for imperative 153 b, 
syntax 159 b, has no relative time 
179 b, intin. expr. by fore ut 165 c, 
participle 202 a. 

Future Perfect 53 a, syntax 161 a, 
used for future id., how repr. in 
subjunctive 162 b, in protasis 170 c. 

Future iulin. pass. (sup. with iri) 55 c, 



Games, names of, plural 30 c. 

gaudeo 77 a. 

Gender 9 c, grammatical 10 a, of ap- 
position 104 c, of adjective 105 c. 

General truth in seq. of tenses, 163 c. 

Genitive 11 c, iilural ending 13 b, in 
Ai and AS 14 b, in ium 19 a, c, in 
lus 34 b, in ajjpos. with possessive 
105 a, 108 b, construction 113 c, sub- 
jective 114 a, in pred. b, with phrase 
id., of adj. for neuter noun 114c, of 
sul)stance id., for noun in apposition 
115 a, of quality and measure id., 
of value id. b, partitive id., after adj. 
for noun 116 b, two gen. witb one 
noun 117 a, objective 117 a, of speci- 
fication 118 a, after verbs 119 a, (of 
remembering &c. 119 a, of accus- 
ing &c. b, of emotion 120 a, imper- 
sonals 120. of plenty and w^ant 120 c, 
136 b, 140 b, with POTIOR 121 a, 127 a, 
of price 141 c. 

Gentiles, names of, 8 b. 

Gerund 50 a, 52 b, syntax 206 c. 

Gerundive 52 a, ending 55 b, periphr. 
form 83 c, with dative of agent 127 c, 
syntax 205 c, 206, origin 207 a. 

Glyconic verse 228 b. 

Government 103 c. 

GRATIA with gen. 115 b, 138 a. 

Greek accus. (synecd.) 133 b. 



H (aspirate) 1 c, used with c 4 c, 
omitted 4 c, not reckoned in posi- 
tion, 215 c. 

HABEO, imperative 153 b, with perf. 
part. 204 c. 

Heteroclites 31b. 

Heterogeneous nouns 31 c. 



248 



INDEX. 



Hexameter verse. 

Hic 45, 46. 

Hindrance, subject of 185 b. 

HUMi (loc.) 145 c. 



I in perf. 55 a, added to root 62 c, lost 

in 3d conj. 63 c, suffix 96 c. 
Iambic verse. 
ID QUOD, 111b. 
IDCIRCO 95 c. 

IDEM 46, deriv. 45 b. 

iDONEus with QUI and subj. 185 c. 

-lER in inlin. pass. 65 c. 

IGITUK 95 c, position 96 a. 

ILLE 45, 46. 

-IM in present subjunctive 65 c. 

IMMO 201c. 

Imperative 51b, termin. 54 b, a weak- 
ened 63 a, drops termin. 65 a, sen- 
tence 101 a, in commands 152 b, 3d 
person antiq. 152 c, future 153 a, 
equiv. to condition 172 c. 

Imperfect 53 a, lengthens vowel 63 a, 
of subj. 64 c, of hortat. subj. 150 b, 
optat. subj. 150 c, concess. subj. 151 c, 
syntax 158 b, in descriptions 158 c, 
for plup. id,, of surprise 159 a, for 
perf. 159 b, in epist. style 161 b, subj. 
in unfulfilled cond. 168 b, in temp, 
clauses 178 a, 179 a, subjunctive re- 
ferring to present time 164 a. 

Impersonal verbs 82, with gen. 120 a, 
used personally 120 b, with dative 
124 b, passive of verbs governing 
dative 126 b, with ace. 132 b, with 
infin. 154 b, with subst. clause 193 c. 

Impure syllable 5 c. 

IN 90 c, construction of 87 b, 146 a. 

Inceptive forms 62 c, verbs (inchoa- 
tive) 77b, 99 c. 

Incomplete tenses 53 c. 

Increment 218. 

Indeclinable nouns 31 a, gender 10 c, 
adjective 37 c, 49 c. 

Indefinite subj. omitted 113 a, rela- 
tive, equiv. to condition 166 c. 

Indicative 51 a, 61, 63, syntax 148 b, 
tenses of 157, in cond. clauses 167 b, 
168 a, in apod, of unfulf. cond. 169 a, 
in fut. cond. 170 a, in apod, of im- 
plied condition 174 a, absolute time 
177 b, in inverted clauses 179 a, with 
CUM 180 c, in causal clauses 181 b, 
with QUOD in subst. clauses 199 b. 

INDIGEO with genitive 120 c, 136 b. 

INDIGNUS, with relative and subjunc. 

185 c, with ablative 137 c. 
Indirect discourse 187 c, subj. of infin. 

om. 155c, subjunct. insubord. clause 

186 a, example 192. 

Infinitive 51b, endings 55 b, c, pass, in 
-lER 65 c, syntax 153 c, as subj. id., 
with impers, 154 b, complementary 
154 b, for subst. clause 154 c, with 
subj. ace. 155b, of purpose and re- 
sult 1.56 a, in exclam. 156 b, 197 c, 
historical 156 c, tenses 164 b, only 
used in present 165 a, with ace. in 



subst. clauses 194 a, with ace. after 
passives 194 b, after verbs of wish- 
ing 195 c, verbs of permission 196 a, 
of determining 196 b, used by poets 
197 a. 

Inflection 8 a. 

INQUAM 81c. 

INSTAR with gen. 115 b. 

Intensive verbs 77 c, 99 c. 

INTEREST 120 b. 

Interjections 9 c, 95 a. 

Intermediate clauses 102 c, with sub- 
junctive 185 c. 

Interrogative particles 9 c, 86 b, 200 a, 
omitted 200 b, 201 a, sentences 101 b. 

IPSE (IPSUS) 45, 46c. 

Irregular nouns 30 b, verbs 78. 

IS 45, 46 c. 

Islands, gender of, 10 c. 

ISTE 45, 46. 

ITAQUE 95, accent 7 c (ergo, 96 a). 

ITER, declined 22 b. 



Jam 87 b. 

JECUR, decl. 22b. 

JUBEO, constr. 155 a, 194 a. 

JUCUNDUS, constr. of 209 c. 

JUNGO with abl. 140 a. 

JUPPITER, decl. 22 b. 

JUXTA 91 b, following noun 148 a. 



L doubled (3d conj.) 62b. 

Labial stems 20 b, gender of 24 b, 26 b. 

LATEO with ace. 133 a. 

-LIBET 48 a. 

LICET with dat. of pred. 155 b, with 

subj. 175 b, 176 c, 196 a. 
Lingual stems 20 c, gender 24 b, 26 b. 
Liquid stems 19 b, gender 24 a, 25. 
Locative case 12 b, as a<lverb 85 a, in 

appos. 104 c, for place 145 a. 
liOco without prep. 145 c. 
LONGius, constr. of, 139 a. 



Magis in compar. 39 a, 109 a. 

malo 79 b. 

Masculine adj. 38a. 

Material, gen. of, 114 c, abl. 137 b. 

maxime, in comp. 39 a. 

Means, abl. of, 139 b. 

Measure, gen. of, 115 a, 144 a. 

Meditative verbs 78 c, 99 c. 

MEMiNi 81b, imperative form, 153 b. 

-MET, enclitic, 45 a. 

Metre 223 c. 

militia (loc.) 145a. 

MiLLE, decl. and constr. 43 a. 

MiNiME 41 a, in answers 201 c. 

MiNORis (of value) 141 c. 

MINUS 41 a, constr. of 139 a. 

MIRUM QUAM 191b. 

MiscEO with abl. 140 a. 
MiSERET 83 a, 120 a. 
Modification of subj. or pred. 102a. 
MODO with hort. subj. 150a, 175c. 
Monoptotes 31a. 



INDEX. 



249 



Months, gender of 10 c, in -ber 35 c, 
construction 146 c, division 234 b. 

Moods 50 a, 51, syntax of. 148 b. 

Motion, preps, with ace. 122 b, verbs 
of (comp.) with ace. 132a. 

Motive with ob or propter 138a. 

Mountains, gender of, 10 c. 

Multiplication 43 b. 

Multiplicatives 43 c, 

Mute stems 20 a. 



N of stem lost 19 b, inserted in 3d 

conj. 62 b. 
NAM, NAMQUE 35 b, 96 a. 
Names of men and women 32. 
jfB with hort. subj. 150 a, in final 

clauses 182 a, in consec. 183 c, with 

verbs of caution 196 b, of fearing 

196 c, omitted id. 
-NE (enclitic) 200 a, with Hic 45 b, 

added to interrog. words 200 c, in 

double questions id. 
IfECNE 200 c. 
NEDUM 183 a. 
Negative particles 9 c, 86 c, two equal 

to affirmative 87 a. 
KEGO for Dico Nox 188 a. 

NEQUEO 82 b. 

NE . . . QUIDEM 87 c, 214 a. 

NESCIO AN 200 C, NESCIO QUIS 191 b. 

Neuter passives 77 a. 

Neuters, like cases 13 a, in al and ar 
17 c, of adj. in s 36 c, ace. as adv. 
84 c, of adj . with abstr. nouns 106 a, 
as noun 107 b, partitive use 115 c. 

Neuter verbs, with agent 138 b. 

Neutral passives 77 b. 

Ni, NISI 176 b, 166 b. 

NIX, decl. 22 c. 

NOLO 79 b, NOLI 192 c. 

NO MEN 32 b, with dative 127 a. 

Nominative 11 b, formed from stems 
12 c, in adj. 36 a, as subj. of verb 
113 a, used for voc. 134 a, with opus 
136 b. 

NONNE 200 a. 

Nouns 14-32, used as adj. 38a, 107b, 
verbal 50 a, irreg. 30 b, derived 96 a, 
compound 100 b, agreement of 103 c, 
in relative clause 110 c, understood 
with gen. 114 a, governing dat. 129 c. 

NUM 200 a. 

Number of appositive 104 c, of adj. 
105 b, of verb 112 b. 

Numerals 41 b, partitive use 115 c. 

Numeral adverbs 43 c. 

NUNC 86 b. 



O SI with subjunct. of wish 151 a. 

O for u after u 2 b, in verb-stems 62 c. 

Object 101 c, indir. 121 b, direct 131 a. 

Oblique cases 12 a. 

OBVius with dative 125 c. 

ODi 81 b. 

Open syllables 5 c, pron. 6 a, affix 9 b, 

in compounds 65 a. 
OPERA with gen. 138 b. 



OPUS with abl. 136 a, with perf. part. 

204 c. 
Oratio Obliqua^see Indirect Discourse. 
Order of words 212. 
Ordinal numbers 41 b, how formed, 

42 b, declined 42 c. 
OS for us 15 c. 
OS, ossis, decl. 22 c. 

P inserted before m 3 c, 20 b, 72 b. 

PALAM 147 b. 

Palatal 1 b, stems 21 c, gender 24 b, 
27 b, verbs 62 c. 

Parisyllabic nouns 17 b, adj. 35 a. 

PARTE, without prepos. 145 c. 

Participial clause, equiv. to condition 
172 b. 

Participles 50 a, 51 c, abl. in i 20 b, 
37 b, compared 39 a, future of pur- 
pose 51 c, 205 b, perfect as adj. 25 a, 
82 c, with habeo 204 c, active 52 a, 
periphr. use 53 c, 83 b, ending 55 b, 
pres. of ESSE 57 c, of deponents 76 b, 
51 a, present as adj. 83c, in ns with 
gen. 17 c, with dative of agent 127 c, 
of source with abl. 136 c, in urus 
with FUl plup. subj. 169c, in rus 
or BUS in future apod. 170 c, syntax 
202, adj. and pred. 203. 

Particles 9 c, 84-96, in compounds 
100c, conditional, with subj. 174c, 
interrogative 200 a. 

Partitive genitive 115 b. 

PARUM 41 a. 

Passive voice 50 c, reflex, use id. 83 b, 
with ace. 133 b, termin. 54b, intin. 
in lER 65 c, participles of deponents 
76 c, of impersonals 83 b, followed 
by dative 122 a, of agent 127 c, sub- 
ject 131a, of verbs of feeling 131b, 
of asking, &c., with ace. 132 c, of 
saying, &c., with accusative and 
infinitive 194 b. 

Patronymics 98 b. 

Peculiar forms, 3d decl. 22 a, genders 
25 a, 26 a, 27 b. 

PENES 91 c, following noun 148 a. 

Penult 7 c, quantity of 218-220. 

PER 91 c, in compos. 41 a, for agent 
138 b. 

Perfect tense, meaning, 53 b, endings 
54b, 55a, syncop. 65b, subjunct. in 
proliib. 150 a, 152 b, of sub. anti- 
quated 150c, concess. subj. 151c, in 
quest. 152 a, syntax 159 c, implies 
discontin. 160 a, in negatives 160 b, 
for pres. in epist. style 161 b, fol- 
lowed by imp. subj. 162 c, subj. for 
past act. after primary tenses 162 c, 
used for sec. tenses in result 163 a, 
with fut. prot. 117 a, intin. for pres. 
165 a, after verbs of feeling 165 c, 
participle in pass, tenses 52 a, of 
depon. id. syntax 202 b. 

Period 214 b. 

Personal endings 54 a. 

Persons of verbs .54 a. 112 b, with relat. 
110 a, 2d in subjunct. 149c, 171 c, 3d 
of imperative antiquated 152 c. 



250 



INDEX. 



PERT^SUM EST 120 a. 

PETO with prepos. 133 a. 

Pherecratic verse 228 c. 

Phonetic decay 2 c, 3 a. 

Phrases, gender 10 c,as adv. 85 b, modi- 
fying 102 b, limited by gen. 114 b. 

PiGET 120 a. 

Place, relatioDS of 144 b, abl. of 142 b, 
143 b, whence 144 c, whither id., 
where 145, verbs of, constr. 146 b. 

Plants, gender of, 10 c, 2d and 4th 
decl. 29 a. 

Plautus, use of qual with indie. 

179 b, prosodial forms 23 b. 
Pluperfect 53 a, of subjunctive, how 

formed 64 c, use 150 b, opt. subj . 150 c, 
cone. subj. 151c, syntax 160; for 
imp. in epist. style 161 b, of subj. in 
false cond. 168 b, in temp, clauses 
178 a, 179 a. 

Plural ace. used as adv. 85 b. 

Pluralia tantum 30 c, with distrib. 43 b. 

PLURis, gen. of value 141c. 

PLUS, decl. of 37 b, constr. 139 a. 

PCEXITET 120 a. 

PONE 91c. 

Position in prosody 216 c. 

Possessives in appos. with gen. 105 a, 
108 a, as nouns 107 a, for gen. 108 b, 
114 a, neuter 114 c, abl. with refert 
&c. i38a, with DOMi 145 b. 

POSSUM 60 b, inlin. as future 164 c. 

POST 91c, with QUAM 147 c. 

POSTQUAM with temp, clauses 177 c. 
POSTULO with prep. 133 a. 
POSTRiDiE w itli gen. 121 a, with ace. 

147 b, with QUAM 147 c. 
Potential mood 51 a. 
POTIOR with gen. 121 a, with abl. 140 b. 
PR^ 91 c, in comp. 41 a. 
Prcenomen 32 b. 
PR^SERTiM, strengthening cum 

180 c. 
PRATER 92 a. 

Predicate 101c, nom. 104a, adj. 105b, 
gender 100 a, after inlin. 155 c. 

Prepositions, assimil. 4 a, classif. and 
meaning 88-93, in comp. 93 a, 100 c, 
comp. with dative 125, 126, with ace. 
125 c, 132 a, c, with verbs of asking 
132 c, after words of origin 137 a, of 
time 143 c, of place 142 c, 144 b, for 
neighborhood 145 c, constr. 146, as 
adv. 147 b, followed by QUAM 147 c, 
following noun 148 a. 

Present stem 53 c. 

Present tense 53 a, endings 54 c, vowel 
61, 62 b, of subjunct. 150-152, syntax 
157 b, curative 157 c, for future id., 
historical 158 a, with dum 158 a, 
hist, followed by sec. tenses 163 c, 
intin. after past verb 164 b, of mem- 
ory 164 c, participle 202 a, supplied 
in passive 52 a, 202 c. 

Preteritive verbs 81 b, 160 c. 

Price, abl. or gen. 141c. 

PRIDIE with genitive 121a, with ace. 
147 b, with QUAM 147 c. 

PRIMO and PRIMUM 87 c. 



Principal parts of verbs 64 b, com- 
bined 65 a. 

PRius with QUAM 147 c. 

PRiusQUAM in relative clauses 179 c. 

PRO 92 a, fm- 130 c. 

PROCUL with abl. 147 b. 

Prohibitions, subj. with is^E 149 c, reg- 
ular constr. 152 b. 

Pronouns 44, old forms 44 b, gen. in i 
44 c, omitted 113a, reflexive 44 b, 46c, 
possessive 44 b, 47 b, 105 c, cujus 
48 c, reciprocal 44 c, 109 c, demonstr. 
45 a, as nouns 107 a, as antecedent 
111 a, intensive 46 c, relative 47, 
109 c, agreement 110, as connective 
111c, interrog. and indef. 47. 

Pronunciation, 5, 6. 

PROPE 92 a, with ace. 147 b, as adv. id. 

Proper names 32 b, in plural 30 c. 

PROPTER 92 a, following noun 148 a. 

PROSUM 60 a. . 

Protasis 166 a (see Condition). 

-PTE (-pse), end. 45 a. 

PUDET 120 a. 

Punishment, abl. of, 119 c. 

Pure syllable 5 c. 

Purpose, inflnitive of, 156 a, UT 182 a, 
ways of expressing 183 b. 



QUM RES 111b. 

QU^so 82 a. 

Quality, genitive of, 115 a. 

-QUAM (-pan) 48 a. 

QUAJM with superl. 40 c, etym. 48 c, 
in comparisons 109 a, 138 c, after 
prep. 147 c, followed by subj. 185 a, 
by inflnitive 188 b, by result clause 
197 b. 

QUAM SI with subj. 174 c. 

QUAMLIBET, QUA:NQUAM, QUAMVIS, 

48 a, 151 b, 174 b, 176 c. 
QU ANDO 95 c, as indef. rel. 177 a, with 

ind. 181 b. 
QUANTi, gen. of value 141 c. 
Quantity 6 c, notes of 215-220. 

QUANTUM VIS witll Subj. 176 C. 

QUASI with subj. 174c. 

-QUE (end.), forming universals 48 c. 

QUEO 82 b. 

Questions 200, indirect 190 a, 200 b, in 

ind. disc. 189 c, indie, in 191 b. 
QUI adverbial 47 b. 
QUIA 95c, with ind. 181b, with subj. 

186 b. 
QUIDEM 87 c, 214 a. 
QUix with subj. 104 a, NON QUIN 186 a, 

in subst. clause 198 b. 
QUIPPE with CUM 180 c. 
QUISQUAM with neg. 48 c. 
QUISQUE with superl. 41 a, with plur. 

verb 112 c. 
QUO in flnal clauses 182 b, non quo 

186 c. , 
QUOAD, until, with snbj. 180 b. 
QUOD 95 c, with ind. 181b, with subj. 

186 b, in subst. clause 199 b, as ace. 

of specif. 199 b, with verbs of feel- 
ing 199 c. 



INDEX. 



251 



QUOM 95 c. 

QUOMiNUS witli subjuncl 184 a, after 

verbs of caution, &c. 196 b. 
quonia:m 95 c, with indie. 181b. 
QUOQUE 87 a. 

R doubled in third conjugation 62 b. 

REAPS 1-: 45. 

Reduplication 61 b, 62 a, b, 63 b, lost 

in compounds 65 a, 96 b, quantity 

219 c. 

REFERT 120 b. 

Reflexive pronouns 44 b, verbs 76 b, 

50 c, with ace. 133 b. 
Relative pronouns 47, clauses 102 b, 

classif. of 193, equiv. to condition 

172 b, 166 c, of purpose 182 a, 195, of 

result 183 c, 197, of characteristic 

184 b. 
Result, infin. of, 156 a, perf. subj. 163 a, 

subjunctive 183 c, 197 a, elliptical 

197 b. 
Rhythm 215, 
Rivers, gender 10 c. 
Root 8 c, 96, of ESSE 59 c, of third con- 

jugatitm 62 b. 
RURI, RURE, 145 a. 
RUS, constr. of 144 b. 

S elided 2 b, 232 a, becomes R 3 a, 19 b, 
termin. of nom. 12c, 13a, in perf. 
stem 62 a, 63 b, 64 b, syncop. 65 b. 

SE added 62 c. 

SALVE 82 b. 

SATIS, NON SATIS 41 a. 

scin' 5 b. 

scio, imperative form 65 c, 153 b. 

SECUNDU3I 92 b. 

SED 95 b. 

SEMI-DEPOXEXTS 77 a. 

SEMI- VOWELS 1 c, I and u 2 a. 

SEXEX, decl. 22 c. . 

Separation, with dat. 126 a, abl. 134 a. 

Sequence of tenses 161 c. 

Sesterces 101 b. 

Sestertius 32 a, 236. 

SELT (see siVE). 

SI 166 b, icJiether 191 c, Sl NON 176 b, 

MIROR SI 199 c. 
STEM 59 c. 

Signs of quantity 76, of accent 8 a. 
-SIM in i)erf. subj. 65c. 
SIMUL with abl. 147 b. 

SIMUL ATQUE 177 C. 

SIX 166 b. 

SIVE 92 b. 

Siiigulnri'x tantum 30 c. 

SIS (SI VIS) 5b. 

SIVE 95 b, 176 b. 

-SO in future perfect 65 c. 

SODES (SI AUDES) 56, 77 b. 

SO LEO 77 a. 

SOLUS with subj. 185 a. 
Space, ace. of, 133 c, 144 a. 
Spet;iticati(m, ace. of, 133a, abl. 142 a. 
Spelling, various, 4 c. 
Stem 86, 96, of nouns 12 c, 96 b. incor- 
rect use 13c, of adj. 33b, of verbs 



53 c, 60 c, changes 54 c, vowel 61, 
present 64b, third conj. 62 b, in u 
62 c, perf. 64b, third conj. 63b, su- 
pine 64 b, quantity of 220 a. 

SUB in compos. 41 a, constr. 87 b, 146 a. 

Subject 101 c, of verb 113 a, of passive 
13 La, of inhn. 133c. 

Subjunctive 51 a, present (vowel- 
change) 61 a, 63 c, inserts e 61 c, 
syntax 148 c, hortat. 149 b, as con- 
dition 172 c, optat. 150 c, concess. 
151b, 175 b, dubit. 152 a, in prohib. 
152 b, tenses 161 c, in false condition 
164 a, 168 b, in fut. cond. 170 b, pres. 
becomes iniperf. 171 b, third person 
for indef. subjunc. 171 c, repeated 
action id., potential 173 b, cautious 
173 c, with cond. and eomi)ar. i)ar- 
ticles 174 c, relative time 177 b, after 
CUM 178 c, of protasis after axte- 
QUAM &c. 180 a, after dum, b, of 
cause 181 b, 185 c, in ind. disc. 181c, 
186 a, in tinal clauses 182 a, after 
xedum 183 a, of result 183 c, after 
QUix and quomixus 184 a, of char- 
acteristic 184 b, after uxus and 
SOLUS 185 a, after quam id., of re- 
striction 185 b, after digxus &c. 
185 c, in intermed. clauses id., after 
UT in subst. clauses 195 c, 197 a, 
after verbs of commanding 195 c, 
of happening 197 a, after quam 
197 b, in exclamations 197 c, in in- 
direct questions 190, 200 b. 

Subordinate clauses 102 c. 

Substantive clauses 102 c, syntax 193. 

super, supra 92 c. 

SUBTER 92 b, constr. 87 b, 146 b. 

Superlative of eminence 40 c, of parti- 
ciple 109 b, used partitively 115 c. 

Supine 29 a, 50 a, 52 b, stem 53 c, 55 b, 
ace. of place whither 144 c, syntax 
209. 

Syllables, division of 5 b, pure, open 
&c. 5 c. 

Synesis 103 b, of adj. 106 b, verbs 112c, 
of secondary tenses 166 a. 

Synopsis "64 c. 

Syntax 101-214, general rules 210, 211. 



T for D 2 b, intercl. with c 4 b, end- 
ing 54 c, 01 b, 62 a, c. 

TiEDET 120 a. 

TAMEX, i)Osition 96 a. 

TAMQUAM with subj. 174 c. 

TAXTi, gen. of value 141c. 

TAXTU3E as correl. 49 b, with hort. 
subj. 150 a. , ' 

TAXTUM A BEST UT 197 C. 

TE, enclitic 45 c. 

Teaching, verbs of 2, ace. 133 c. 

Temporal conjunctions 94 c, clauses 

102 c, 176 c. 
-TER, sutiix 34 c. 
Tenses 50 a, 52 c, syntax 157, sequence 

151c. 
TEXUS 92 c, construction 146 c, foUow- 

injr noun 148 a. 



252 



INDEX. 



TERRA MARIQUE 145 a. 

Time, absolute and relative, 157 a, 
1(31 c, how long (ace.) 133c, 143 b, 
when (abl.) 143 b. 

Towns, gender 10 c, in us, fern. 16 a, 
in E 18 c, names of, constr. 144 b. 

TRANS 92 c. 

Trees, gender 10 c. 

TRES 42 c. 

Triptotes 31 a. 

Trochaic verse 227 a. 

TUM, TUNC, 87 b, with cum 95c, 181 a. 



U stems (verbs) 62 c, 64a, 96 c. 

UBi as indef. rel. 177 a, c. 

ULLUS with neg. 48 c. 

ULTRA 93 a, following noun 148 a. 

UNQUAM with neg. 48 c. 

UNUS 42 b, with rel. and subj. 185 a. 

USQUAM with neg. 48 c. 

USQUE with ace. 147 b. 

us US with abl. 136 a. 

UT with concess. subj. 151b, 175b, 
176 c, as indef. rel. 177 a,- UT cum 
180 c, in final clauses 182 a, consec. 
do. 183 c, subst. do. 195 b, 197 a, with 
verbs of fearing 196 c, omitted id. 

UTERQUE with plur. verb 112 c, with 
nouns and pronouns 116 c. 

UTi, UTiNAM, with subj. of wish 151a, 
192 c. 

UTOR with abl. 140 c. 

UTSI with subj . 174 c. 

UTRUM 200 c, used alone 201 b. 



V 2 a, 6 a, syncop. 65 b. 

VALDE 41a. 

Value, genitive of 115 b. 

VAPULO 77 b. 

Variable nouns 31 b, adj. 37 c. 



-VE, VEL, 95 b. 

VELiM, VELLEM, with subj. 151 a. 

VELUTI, VELUTSI 174 C. -J 

VENEO 77 b, 80 a. 

Verbs 50-83, forms 54, 56, endings 55 c, 
special forms and parallel 65 b, de- 
ponent 75 c, irreg. 78, defect. 81, 
impers. 82, deriv. of 99, compound 
100 b, syntax 112, 113, 148-209, 
omitted 113 b, of remembering &c. 
119 a, of accusing &c. 119 b, of 
emotion with gen. 120 a, of plenty, 
&C.120C. ^ y y* 

Verbals in ax 98 b, with gen. 117 c. 

VERO 96 a, in answers 201 c. 

Verse 222 c, forms of 224-231. 

VERSUS 93 a, as adv. 147 b. 

VERUM 95 b. 

YESCOR with abl. 140 b. 

VETO, constr. of 155 a, 194 a. 

VIM 5 b, VIS 48 a. 

Vocative 12 a, 13 a, of nouns in lus 
Up, construction 134, of adj. for 
-4S:iyf^^ 134 b. 

Voices 50 a. 

VOLO 79. 

Vowels 1 b, strengthened 62 a, weak- 
ened 63 a. 

Vowel change in verbs 56, in future 
63 a, subj. 53 c, in compounds 65 a. 

Vowel increase 2 c, 61 a, 62 b, 63 b, 96 b. 

Vowel scale 2 c. 

Vowel stems 12 c, 17 b, 19 a, 20 a, gen- 
der of 24. 



Winds, gender 10 c. 
Wishes and commands 192, 
Women, names of, 32 c. 



Y in root of third conj. 62 c. 



ERRATA. 

Page 9, paragraph 3, omit the third line. 
„ 143, Note, ers^se the last two words. 



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